t 


k,w.. 


I.: 


120     Longituiie    140    Ea«l  from     160     Greenwich    180 


A    HISTORY    OF    THE 
UNITED  STATES 


BY 

HENRY   ELDRIDGE    BOURNE 

AND 

ELBERT   JAY    BENTON 

PROFESSORS   OF   HISTORY  IN   WESTERN   RESERVE   UNIVERSITY 


D.     C.     HEATH     AND     COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


0'f 


BY  BOURNE  AND   BENTON 


INTRODUCTORY   AMERICAN   HISTORY 

Presents  the  course  recommended  for  the  sixth  grade  by  the 
Committee  of  Eight  of  the  American  Historical  Association. 
Cloth.     271  pages.     Maps  and  illustrations. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Gives  prominence  to  the  life  and  industries  of  the  people, 
and  to  the  development  of  the  nation.  Cloth.  598  pages. 
Maps  and  illustrations. 


D.   C.   HEATH   &  CO.,   PUBLISHERS 


Copyright,  19 13,  by 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Company 

IE7 


PREFACE 

This  textbook  is  based  on  the  plan  of  study  recommended  for 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  by  the  Committee  of  Eight  of  the 
American  Historical  Association.  The  work  for  the  sixth  grade 
has  been  given  in  a  shorter  book,  entitled  Introductory  American 
History.  About  two-thirds  of  that  book  concern  the  beginnings 
in  Great  Britain  and  Europe  of  the  civilization  which  the  people 
of  the  United  States  share  with  other  peoples  of  European  race. 
The  remainder  contains  descriptions  of  the  discoveries  and  early 
settlements  of  America,  principally  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
This  volume  for  the  upper  grades  opens  with  a  chapter  which 
repeats  briefly  the  story  of  early  discovery  and  settlement.  The 
chapter  may  be  used  as  a  review  in  those  schools  which  use  the 
Introductory  American  History.  Teachers  who  do  not  use  that 
book  will  find  in  the  chapter  the  essential  facts  of  the  period. 

American  history  is  so  rich  and  varied  that  the  most  serious  ques- 
tion which  confronts  the  authors  of  a  textbook  is  that  of  selection 
and  emphasis.  If  space  is  to  be  found  for  adequate  treat- 
ment of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  our  national  develop- 
ment, especially  of  those  within  the  comprehension  of  the  pupil 
of  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade,  certain  phases  of  the  political  and 
military  history  of  the  country  must  be  reserved  for  later  study. 

The  two  great  facts  which  the  authors  have  emphasized  in  order 
to  give  unity  to  their  treatment  are  (i)  the  migration  of  people 
from  many  different  nations  to  America,  and  (2)  the  westward 
movement  in  America.  Another  fact  emphasized  is  the  effort 
of  the  settlers  to  reproduce  in  this  country  the  ways  of  living  to 
which  they  were  accustomed  at  home.  Their  success  in  organiz- 
ing civilized  life  over  so  vast  an  area  in  three  or  four  centuries 
has  been  a  work  the  magnitude  of  which  may  well  awaken  the 
interest  of  every  pupil. 

The  geographical  setting  of  American  history  has  been  kept  con- 
stantly in  mind.  The  pupil  should  be  made  to  realize  the  impor- 
tance of  geographical  facts  in  the  development  of  civilization  and 
especially  in  the  history  of  the  United  States.  He  has  been  study- 
ing geography  for  several  years  and  should  discover  that  his  work 


376608 


iv  PREFACE 

is  of  immediate  utility  in  the  study  of  a  kindred  subject.  Certain 
great  movements,  like  the  Revolutionary  War  and  the  Civil  War, 
cannot  be  understood  without  an  appreciation  of  their  geograph- 
ical setting.  Geography  and  chronology  have  been  called  "the 
two  eyes  of  history,"  but  date  Usts  are  often  emphasized  far  more 
than  geographical  conditions.  In  the  Civil  War  the  geographical 
features  of  Virginia  and  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  were  determin- 
ing factors,  and  were  always  noted  by  the  leaders.  It  is  obvious 
that  such  facts  must  form  the  basis  of  the  class-room  study  of 
the  war.  What  is  true  of  that  war  is  equally  true  of  other  move- 
ments. The  teacher  will  note  the  emphasis  upon  geographical 
facts  in  chapter  iii.  Exploring  the  Mississippi  Valley;  chapter 
viii,  Dutch  and  English  Rivalries;  chapter  x,  The  French  Rivals, 
as  well  as  in  the  chapters  on  the  wars. 

In  selecting  the  characteristic  incidents  which  should  be 
described  the  authors  have  again  kept  in  mind  the  experience 
of  the  pupil.  Only  the  simpler  features  of  political  institutions 
and  controversies  have  been  touched,  while  special  attention  has 
been  given  to  occupations,  industry,  trade,  manners,  and  customs. 

The  European  background,  that  is,  the  history  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Europe,  has  been  explained  whenever  it  furnishes  a  key  to 
an  understanding  of  events  in  America  which  were  the  direct  out- 
growth of  events  in  the  Old  World.  The  point  of  view  is  Amer- 
ican and  the  amount  of  European  history  included  is  necessarily 
small.  The  teacher  can  readily  supplement  what  is  contained 
in  the  text. 

The  appendix  gives  a  summary  of  the  principal  political  events, 
with  the  names  of  Presidents  and  Vice-Presidents,  and  of  defeated 
candidates  for  the  Presidency,  the  dates  of  the  admission  of  states, 
with  their  area  and  population.  Tables  of  statistics  are  included, 
showing  the  rapid  growth  of  the  states  and  the  development  of 
industry  and  trade. 

The  bibliographical  lists  at  the  close  contain  references  which 
the  teachers  may  use  in  guiding  the  reading  of  the  pupils.  A 
much  longer  list  might  have  been  given,  but  care  has  been  exer- 
cised to  make  the  list  serviceable. 

The  authors  wish  to  express  their  thanks  to  those  who  have 
aided  them  with  helpful  criticisms. 


CONTENTS 


XVI 

XVII 

XVIII 

XIX 

XXI 

XXII 

XXIII 

XXIV 

XXV 

XXVI 

XXVII 

XXVIII 

XXIX 

XXX 

XXXI 


PAGE 

Discoverers  and  Explorers i 

Gaining  a  Foothold  on  the  Atlantic  Shore  ,     .  17 

Exploring  the  Mississippi  Valley 27 

The  Founding  of  Virginia 39 

The  Exiles  for  Conscience  Sake  at  Plymouth  .  49 

The  Beginnings  of  New  Ej^gland 59 

Marylant>,  a  Refuge  for  English  Catholics     .  71 
Dutch  and  English  Rivalries:   Beginnings  of  a 

Great  State 77 

A  Second  Great  Emigration 87 

The  French  Rivals 99 

The  Making  of  New  Frontiers iii 

How  THE  Colonists  Lived 121 

How  THE  Colonies  Were  Governed      ....  139 
Conquest  of  the  French  Colonies  in  America  148 
Why    the    English    Colonists  Became    Revolu- 
tionists    164 

The  Outbreak  of  War 178 

The  Birth  of  a  New  Nation      .     .     .     .     .     .  189 

Life  in  War  Time 203 

How  THE  French  Helped  the  Colonists   .     .     .  213 

The  Difficulties  of  the  New  Republic    .     .     .  225 

Starting  the  New  Government 238 

The  United  States  and  Europe 250 

Rule  of  Jefferson:  A  New  West 263 

The  United  States  and  the  Napoleonic  Wars  .  276 

The  War  of  1812 286 

New  Work  and  New  Routes '  .  297 

The  March  of  Population  Westward       .     .     .310 

Government  by  the  People 323 

Problems  of  the  New  Democracy 331 

Neighboring   Countries   Bring   on   New   Ques- 
tions    345 

How  the  United  States  Won  the  Pacific  Coast  354 


vi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXXII    A  Great  Domain,  New  Tools,  and  Willing  Hands    363 

XXXIII  The  Question  of  Slavery 376 

XXXIV  A  Divided  Nation 390 

XXXV  '  The  Beginning  of  Civil  War 400 

XXXVI    Story  of  Victory  and  Defeat 412 

XXXVII    Conquering  a  Peace 425 

XXXVin    Peace  and  its  Problems 433 

XXXIX    Neighbors  and  Rivals 446 

XL    The  Prairie  States        454 

XLI    New  Methods  of  Working 463 

XLII    The  New  South 475 

XLIII    The  Last  Barriers 483 

XLIV    Laborers  of  a  Great  Nation 491 

*^^-  XLV    New  Methods  of  Government 500 

XL VI    The  New  Education 513 

XL VII    The  Republic  and  the  Larger  World       .     .     .  522 
Appendix 

Chronological  Summary  of  American  Political  History    .  i 

Population  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Period  of  Independence  x 

Area  and  Population  of  the  States  and  Territories     .      .  x 

Population  of  the  United  States  by  Races      ....  xii 

Place  of  Birth  of  Present  Population xii 

Cities  of  the  United  States  with  Population  over  200,000  xii 

Population  of  Countries  of  Europe xiii 

Progress  of  Education xiv 

Waste  of  Wealth  in  the  United  States xiv 

Table  Showing  Industrial  Progress  of  the  United  States  xv 

References  for  Teachers xvi 

Declaration  of  Independence xxxiii 

Constitution  of  the  United  States xxxvi 

Index xlix 


LIST   OF   MAPS 

PAGE 

Map  of  the  World,  showing  the  United  States  and  its  Possessions 

cover  page  2 

A  Globe  made  before  Columbus  Discovered  America      ....  4 

Map  of  the  New  World 6 

The  New  World  according  to  a  Map-Maker  of  1 540       ....  9 

Map  showing  Five  Famous  Voyages  of  Exploration 15 

Supposed  Extent  of  North  America 17 

Parts  of  North  America  Occupied  or  Explored,  about  1650       .      .  25 

The  Great  Mountain  Barrier  back  of  the  Enghsh  Settlements  27 
Map  showing  Natural  Features  and  Native  Tribes  of  the  United 

States between    30    and    31 

Map  of  La  Salle's  Explorations 36 

Map  of  Virginia 40 

Captain  John  Smith's  Map  of  New  England 53 

Plymouth  Harbor 54 

Country  about  Massachusetts  Bay 62 

Country  about  Narragansett  Bay 64 

New  England  in  the  Seventeenth  Century 67 

Early  Settlements  in  Maryland 73 

New  Netherland  in  1655  —  According  to  the  Dutch 81 

West  Indies 88 

The  Middle  Colonies 92 

The  Carolina  Coast 95 

Charleston  Harbor 96 

Map  of  Portages  in  New  France  and  the  Illinois  Country    .      .      .  107 

Where  the  German  and  Scotch-Irish  Emigrants  Settled       .      .      .  114 

Settlements  in  Georgia 118 

Eastern  North  America  at  the  Beginning  of  the  French  and  Indian 

War 149 

The  Ohio  Country  and  the  New  French  Forts 151 

Route  of  Braddock's  Expedition 155 

The  British  Territory  in  1763 161 

Boston,  Bunker  Hill,  and  Charlestown 183 

Reference  Map  for  the  Revolution  —  Northern  and  Middle  States 

facing  196 


viii  LIST    OF    MAPS 

PAGE 

New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania 198 

Mountain  Trails  and  the  Western  Country 208 

Reference   Map   for   the   Revolution  —  Southern   States        facing  2 iS 

Cornwallis's  Wandering  Campaign  at  the  South  • 219 

Our  Country  in  1783 225 

Land  Claims  of  the  Thirteen  Original  States        ....     facing  232 

The  Northwest  Territory  after  Wayne's  Victory 247 

The  Louisiana  Purchase 267 

Lewis  and  Clark's  Route 270 

The  United  States  in  1 8 10-12 facing  2^2 

Pike's  Route 273 

Europe  at  the  Height  of  Napoleon's  Power 284 

Lake  Erie  and  the  Surrounding  Country 288 

Route  of  the  National  Road,  181 2-1840 305 

Map  of  the  Erie  Canal 307 

The  United  States  in  1820,  showing  the  Missouri  Compromise.      .     317 

The  United  States  in  1825 between  322  attd  323 

Map  showing  the  Disputed  Boundary  of  Maine t^s;^ 

The  Republic  of  Texas 347 

The  Principal  Western  Trails 350 

The  Oregon  Compromise 356 

Map  of  the  Mexican  War 357 

Territory  acquired  from  Mexico  as  the  Result  of  the  War  facing  358 
Railroads  in  Operation  in  the  Northern  States  in  i860  ....  364 
Territories  from  which  Kansas  and  Nebraska  were  erected  .      .      .     382 

The  United  States  in  186 1 facing  392 

Map  of  Forts  in  Charleston  Harbor 395 

Railroads  and  Navigable  Waterways  of  the  South,  1861       .      .      .     401 

Map  of  Campaigns  in  Virginia 408 

The  Line  of  Defense  in  January,  1862 412 

Reference  Map  for  the  Civil  War,  1861-1865     .      .   between  414  and  415 

The  United  States,  Canada,  and  Mexico 449 

Territorial  Growth  of  the  United  States,  1 783-1867    between  450  and  451 

Principal  Railroads  West  of  the  Mississippi  in  1884 454 

The  Cross-Roads  of  the  Pacific 525 

Relief  Map  of  the  Panama  Canal 527 

Map  showing  the  Effect  of  the  Panama  Canal  on  Trade  Routes  .  528 
Map  of  the  United  States  and  its  Possessions       .      .      .    cover    page    3 


.   V  i 


HISTORY   OF   THE 
UNITED    STATES 

CHAPTER   I 

DISCOVERERS  AND   EXPLORERS 

The  Work  of  Three  Centuries. — Three  hundred  years  ago 
the  whole  of  the  United  States  was  forest,  prairie,  and  desert, 
the  haunt  of  wild  animals  and  Indians.  Today  nearly 
the  whole  country  is  settled.  Highways  and  railroads  extend 
in  all  directions.  Farms  and  factories,  schools  and  churches, 
libraries  and  theatres  are  found  everywhere.  What  a  great 
work  to  have  been  done  in  that  time!  If  it  had  meant 
just  cutting  down  trees,  building  houses,  clearing  the  fields 
for  crops,  and  making  roads,  that  would  have  been  a  task  big 
enough,  but  that  is  only  a  small  part  of  what  has  been  done. 
The  settlers  wanted  to  live  as  their  fathers  had  lived  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent.  This  meant  more  work. 
As  new  inventions  were  made,  or  better  ways  of  living  were 
found,  either  in  Europe  or  America,  these  were  carried  wher- 
ever the  settlers  went.  All  this  work  has  been  done  not 
only  by  the  early  settlers,  their  children,  and  their  children's 
children,  but  also  by  later  emigrants.^ 

^  The  word  "  emigrants,"  rather  than  "  immigrants,"  is  used  here  and  in  the 
chapters  which  follow  as  long  as  the  principal  thought  is  movement  from 
Europe  to  America.  When  the  colonies  become  the  United  States,  the  point 
of  view  is  reversed.  In  treating  the  later  movements  from  Europe,  therefore, 
the  word  "  immigrants  "  wiU  be  used.    , 


2  DISCOVERERS   AND    EXPLORERS 

What  the  Early  Setclers  had  and  what  they  did  not  have. 
—  The  earlier  settlers  might  have  done  some  of  their  work 
more  rapidly  if  they  had  had  the  machines  which  men  have 
since  learned  to  make,  Hke  the  steam  shovel,  the  locomotive, 
and  the  electric  motor.  But  they  were  much  better  off 
than  the  Indians  that  they  found  in  America.  Their  ships 
were  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  storms  of  the  Atlantic. 
They  could  fight  against  their  enemies  with  guns  and  cannon. 
They  had  also  many  good  tools  which  they  had  learned  to  use 
in  their  European  homes.  They  not  only  understood  how  to 
fight  better  than  the  Indians,  but  they  had  also  learned  to 
govern  themselves  wisely,  and  had  brought  with  them  many 
just  laws  and  excellent  customs.  To  understand  just  what 
sort  of  people  they  were,  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  history  of 
the  countries  from  which  they  came.  Some  of  the  things  which 
they  knew  they  owed  to  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  who 
lived  in  Ancient  Times. ^  Others  they  owed  to  the  men  of  the 
Middle  Ages  in  England,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain. 

Three  Great  Discoveries.  —  The  earhest  period  in  American 
history  is  commonly  called  the  Period  of  Discovery.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  describe  in  detail  the  events  of  that  period; 
it  will  be  enough  to  state  briefly  the  main  facts.^  The  most 
important  voyages  of  that  period  were  made  by  Bartholomew 
Diaz,  Christopher  Columbus,  and  Ferdinand  Magellan.  All 
three  w€re  in  search  of  a  route  to  the  Indies,  the  Golden  East 
about  which  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian  traveler,  had  told  the 
world.  Europeans  had  usually  obtained  from  the  Venetians 
the  spices,  drugs,  and  silks  of  India,  China,  and  of  the 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Asia.     The  Venetians  purchased  them 

1  Ancient  Times  include  the  early  history  of  Europe  down  to  the  fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire  about  400  a.d.  The  Middle  Ages  follow  down  to 
the  time  of  Columbus. 

2  See  Introductory  American  History  for  a  fuller  account  of  the  discoveries 
and  of  the  events  which  led  to  them.  ' 


CHRISTOPHER    COLUMBUS  3 

in  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  at  ports  where  the  ancient  cara- 
van routes  from  the  East  ended.  In  the  time  of  Columbus 
it  was  becoming  dangerous,  on  account  of  the  wars,  to  bring 
eastern  goods  overland,  and  all  the  bolder  sailors  were  eager 
to  find  a  sea  route  to  the  Indies. 

Bartholomew  Diaz.  —  Diaz  was  a  Portuguese  captain. 
Many  Portuguese  before  him  had  attempted  to  go  far  enough 
down  the  coast  of  Africa 
to  find  the  southern  point, 
and,  passing  it,  turn  north- 
ward again  toward  India. 
He  was  successful  in  1487, 
although  he  did  not  reach 
India.  As  he  had  shown 
the  way,  another  Portu- 
guese captain,  Vasco  da 
Gama,  eleven  years  later  / 
reached  India  and  brought 

back    to   Portugal    a   rich  _      '  .. 

Christopher  Columbus 
cargo  of  spices. 

Christopher  Columbus.  —  Meanwhile  Columbus,  a  Genoese 
sailor,  who  had  once  been  in  the  service  of  Portugal,  but  now 
was  in  the  service  of  Spain,  formed  a  still  more  venturesome 
plan.  He  beHeved  that  he  could  find  his  way  to  spice-bearing 
islands,  and  even  to  the  coasts  of  China  and  Japan,  by  saihng 
westward  across  the  Atlantic.  Many  sailors  in  those  days 
feared  the  Atlantic  as  a  ''Sea  of  Darkness"  full  of  dread- 
ful monsters,  but  Columbus  had  been  on  voyages  with  the 
great  sea-captains  of  Genoa  and  Portugal,  and  no  longer 
dreaded  to  go  far  out  of  sight  of  land. 

A  Famous  Voyage.  —  With  three  small  ships  Columbus 
left  Spain  on  August  3,  1492.  He  visited  the  Canary  Islands, 
and  on  September  6  turned  the  prows  of  his  ships  due  west 
into  the  wide  and  unknown  Atlantic.     Columbus  thought 


4  DISCOVERERS    AND    EXPLORERS 

the  earth  smaller  than  it  really  is,  and  therefore  that  a 
voyage  to  the  coast  of  Asia  would  be  short.  He  also  imag- 
ined that  the  Atlantic  would  contain  many  islands  which 
he  would  find  on  the  voyage.  At  first  all  went  well,  for  the 
winds  blew  steadily  from  the  east,  wafting  the  ships  along. 
But  as  the  days  passed,  the  sailors  began  to  wonder  how  they 


A  Globe  made  before  Columbus 
Discovered  America 

This  globe  was  made  in  Nuremberg  in   1492,  and  is  still  preserved. 
It  shows  the  Atlantic  Ocean  as  Columbus  thought  of  it 

could  return  against  those  winds.  Columbus  sometimes  had 
great  difficulty  in  keeping  them  from  open  mutiny.  For 
nearly  five  weeks  he  kept  sailing  westward.  He  encouraged 
the  sailors  by  promises  of  a  prize  to  the  one  who  should  first 
see  land.  Signs  of  land  finally  appeared,  and  on  October  12 
a  small  island  was  discovered.  Columbus  named  it  San 
Salvador.  It  was  probably  the  present  Watling  Island. 
Columbus  soon  found  many  islands  on  every  side.  When 
he  came  upon  a  large  body  of  land  which  the  Indians  called 
Cuba,  he  sent  two  messengers  to  search  for  the  emperor  of 
China,  who,  he  thought,  must  live  near.     He  was  bitterly 


A    FAMOUS    VOYAGE  5 

disappointed  when  they  found  neither  an  emperor,  nor  cities, 
nor  gold,  nor  even  spices. 

Misfortunes  of  Columbus.  —  However,  when  Columbus 
returned  to  Spain  he  \^as  received  with  great  rejoicing  and 
was  honored  by  the  king  and  queen.  He  made  three  other 
voyages  to  America,  discovering  other  islands  in  the  West 
Indies  and  parts  of  the  coast  of  South  and  Central  America. 


Caravels  of  Columbus 

After  the  model  shown  at  the  Columbian  Exposition, 
Chicago,  1893 

As  he  failed  to  gain  great  riches  for  himself  or  his  followers, 
he  became  unpopular.  Once  he  was  taken  back  to  Spain 
in  chains  like  a  common  prisoner.  Though  his  last  days 
were  saddened  by  misfortune,  every  one  now  regards  him  as 
the  greatest  of  the  discoverers.  He  had  done  more  than 
start  the  search  for  another  way  to  India  —  he  had  also 
started  the  exploration  of  a  New  World. 

Discovery  of  the  South  Sea.  —  In  15 13,  seven  years  after 
the  death  of  Columbus,  a  Spanish  planter,  named  Balboa, 
discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  Columbus  had  not  even 
seen.  Balboa  and  his  followers  marched  from  the  shore  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea  through  the  dense  forests  of  the  Isthmus 


6  DISCOVERERS    AND    EXPLORERS 

of  Panama,  taking  twenty- two  days  to  go  forty-five  miles. 
From  the  hill-tops  they  finally  discovered  a  vast  sea  stretch- 
ing south  and  west.  Balboa  called  it  the  South  Sea,  and 
this  name  was  much  used.  The  ocean  which  Balboa  saw, 
Magellan  soon  afterward  crossed. 


E:tNLANq,^l^j,LAND 


•?^'/, 


^n    0-  ^ — ^^,o 

TLVJ.~r.^  JAMAICA  go 

O  U  TH      V 

SEA 


Map  of  the  New  Worli) 
Made  after  the  discoveries  of  Columbus  and  Balboa 


Ferdinand  Magellan.  —  Magellan  was  a  Portuguese  like 
Diaz  and  Da  Gama,  but  like  Columbus  he  had  entered  the 
service  of  the  king  of  Spain.  His  object  was  to  find  a  route 
to  the  Indies  past  the  great  continent  which  lay  across 
the  way  that  Columbus  had  chosen.  The  Portuguese  were 
already  trading  not  only  in  India,  but  also  in  the  Spice  Islands, 
and  Magellan  became  famiHar  with  that  region  while  in  their 
service.  He  sailed  from  Spain  in  15 19  with  five  ships,  and 
spent  a  year  in  searching  the  coast  of  South  America  for  a 
passage  into  the  ocean  on  the  other  side.  At  last  he  made 
his  way  through  the  strait  since  named  for  him,  the  Strait  of 
Magellan,  and  sailed  out  into  the  Pacific  or  Peaceful  Sea. 
His  task  was  now  to  cross  the   Pacific,   which  was  wider 


THE    NAMING   OF   AMERICA 


than  he  supposed.     He  succeeded,  although  his  men  suffered 

terribly  before  they  reached  the  Ladrone  Islands,  where  they 

obtained  a  supply  of  food.     Soon  afterward  he  reached  the 

Philippines,  but  was  killed  in  a  fight  with  the  natives.     One 

of  his  ships  found  its  way  back  to  Spain  by  saiHng  around  the 

Cape  of    Good    Hope.      Although 

Magellan   died  before   the   voyage 

was  ended,  the  fame  and  honor  of 

having  sailed  around  the  world,  and 

having  proved  that  America  is  not 

a  part  of  Asia,  but  separated  from 

it  by  a  great  ocean,  belongs  to  him. 

The  route  to  the  Indies  which  he 

discovered    was,    however,   not   as 

convenient  as  that  followed  by  Diaz 

and  Da  Gama. 

The  Naming  of  America.  —  It 
seems  strange  that  America  was 
not  named  for  Columbus.  A  great 
river,  many  cities  in  the  United 
states,  the  District  of  Columbia,  in  spo^wherTMaTeuL  Taf  killed 

which  Washington   is    situated,   and    in  a  battle  with  the  natives  of  the 
1      A  •  n     1    Philippine  Islands 

a  country  in  South  America,  called 

the  United  States  of  Colombia,  are  named  for  him,  but  the 
American  continents  were  named  for  another  explorer,  Ameri- 
cus  Vespucius.  Americus  wrote  about  his  discoveries  much 
more  than  Columbus  did.  The  people  of  the  day  either  did 
not  know  what  Columbus  had  done,  or  had  forgotten  it.  One 
of  them  who  was  writing  a  geography  suggested  that  the  new 
lands  be  named  for  Americus.  This  was  copied  from  one 
geography  into  another  until  everybody  began  to  call  the 
new  continents  America. 

A  Passage  to  the  South  Sea.  —  When  the  early  voyagers 
learned  that  America  was  not  merely  a  group  of  islands  off 


Magellan  Monument  on 
Mactan  Island 


8 


DISCOVERERS    AND    EXPLORERS 


'^S^^J^ 


View  of  the  "South  Sea"  from  Panama 


the  coast  of  Asia,  they  wished  to  explore  it,  partly  to  find  a 
passage  to  the  South  Sea  nearer  than  the  Strait  of  Magellan, 
and  partly  to  find  gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  and  other  treas- 
ures which 
they  heard 
about  con- 
t  i  nu  a  lly  . 
Some  of  these 
explorers  ac- 
complished 
great  things, 
while  others 
were  disap- 
pointed. 

Cortes,  Conqueror  of  Mexico.  —  Two  explorers  were  also 
conquerors.  They  were  Cortes  and  Pizarro.  A  chief  named 
Montezuma  reigned  in  Mexico  at  that  time  over  a  people 
called  the  Aztecs.  Montezuma  had  treasures  of  silver  and 
gold  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  these  Cortes  undertook  to 
capture.  After  fighting  for  two  years  he  was  victorious.  He 
then  ruled  over  the  country  in  the  name  of  the  Spanish  king. 
Pizarro,  Conqueror  of  Peru.  —  Pizarro  did  in  Peru  what 
Cortes  had  done  in  Mexico.  The  booty  which  the  Spaniards 
seized  in  Peru  was  greater  than  they  found  in  Mexico,  amount- 
ing to  nearly  seven  million  dollars  in  gold,  besides  a  great 
quantity  of  silver.  The  mines  of  Peru,  as  well  as  of  Mexico, 
were  very  rich,  and  the  Spaniards  were  able  to  send  silver 
and  gold  home  to  Spain. 

De  Soto,  Discoverer  of  the  Mississippi.  —  Two  other 
Spanish  leaders  were  not  so  successful.  They  were  De  Soto, 
the  governor  of  Cuba,  and  Coronado,  a  friend  of  the  viceroy, 
or  governor,  of  Mexico.  In  1539  De  Soto  crossed  over  from 
Cuba  to  Florida,  which  was  also  a  part  of  his  dominions. 
He  had  heard  tales  of  a  country  rich  in  gold  mines,  whose  king 


DE   SOTO  9 

was  sprinkled  every  morning  with  powdered  gold,  and  he 
brought  together  a  large  band  of  followers  in  order  to  search 
for  this  Gilded  Man  or  El  Dorado.  The  army  wandered  for 
four  years,  much  of  the  time  in  a  half-starved  condition,  over 
a  region  now  lying  within  eight  southern  states.    They  treated 


^-Ow^^r^-;, 


The  New  World  according  to  a  Map-Maker  of  1540 


the  Indians  cruelly  and  were  repeatedly  attacked  by  them.  In 
these  battles  the  Spaniards  lost  most  of  their  baggage.  It 
became  necessary  for  them  to  use  the  skins  of  wild  animals 
for  clothing.  Finally  they  discovered  a  great  river  which  the 
Indians  called  the  Mississippi.  For  another  year  the  ex- 
plorers wandered  west  of  the  Mississippi  through  the  almost 
endless  forests  and  swamps  now  within  Arkansas.  Here, 
worn  out  by  hardships  and  ill  with  malarial  fever,  De  Soto 
died,  and  was  buried  secretly  in  the  waters  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi.     His  followers  were  afraid  that  the  Indians,  if  they 


lO 


DISCOVERERS    AND    EXPLORERS 


knew  of  the  death  of  the  leader,  would  murder  the  whole 
band.  The  explorers  sought  in  vain  for  rich  treasures 
such  as  Cortes  had  found  in  Mexico  and  Pizarro  in  Peru. 
Scarcely  half  of  the  original  six  hundred  survived.  The 
remnant  of  the  once  fine  army  built  boats  and  floated  down 

the  Mississippi  and  found 
their  way  to  Mexico. 

Coronado,  Explorer  of 
the  Southwest.  —  Coro- 
nado and  De  Soto  at  one 
time  nearly  met  on  the 
plains  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Coronado  started 
in  1540  from  western  Mex- 
ico, near  the  Gulf  of  CaH- 
fornia.  He  planned  to  find 
the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola, 
which  he  hoped  would  be 
as  full  of  rich  booty  as 
Mexico  or  Peru.  But  the 
Seven  Cities  of  Cibola  existed  only  in  the  imagination  of  the 
Spaniards,  who  believed  that  centuries  before  seven  Spanish 
bishops,  fleeing  before  their  heathen  enemies,  had  crossed 
the  ocean  and  built  seven  great  cities.  The  only  cities  that 
Coronado  found  were  the  pueblos  of  the  Indians  —  groups 
of  houses  made  of  stone  and  sun-dried  clay.  Coronado's 
army  did  not  give  up  its  search  until  it  reached  the  region 
now  included  in  Kansas.  This  was  in  1541,  when  De  Soto 
was  distant  only  nine  days'  march.  They  then  turned  back, 
a  sadly  disappointed  band  of  men. 

St.  Augustine,  the  Oldest  Town  in  the  United  States.  — 
None  of  Coronado's  or  De  Soto's  followers  cared  to  settle  in 
the  lands  which  they  had  explored.  They  had  not  found  that 
for  which  they  were  looking.     The  principal  Spanish  settle- 


Palisaded  Indian  Village 


ST.    AUGUSTINE 


II 


ments  for  many  years  were  in  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Cuba. 
About  twenty  years  after  De  Soto's  expedition  the  Spanish 
king  sent  Menendez  to  Florida  to  found  settlements.  In 
order  to  succeed  he  was  obhged  to  drive  away  the  French, 
who  had  recently  built  a  fort  near  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John's 
River.  Menendez 
had  another  reason 
for  attacking  them ; 
he  was  a  Roman 
Catholic  and  they 
were  Protestants. 
Most  Frenchmen 
were  Catholics,  but 
these  men  were 
Protestants.  In 
those  days  Catho- 
lics and  Protes- 
tants could  not  live 
peaceably  together. 
The  French  called 
the  settlement  Fort 
Carohne,^  after  the 
king  who  reigned  in 

France.  In  the  battles  which  took  place  Menendez  was 
successful,  and  he  either  killed  or  drove  away  all  the  French. 
The  settlement  which  he  founded  in  1565  was  called  St.  Au- 
gustine, and  it  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  United  States. 

Spanish  Emigrants  and  Indians.  —  The  king  of  Spain  did 
not  encourage  his  people  to  cross  the  Atlantic  to  his  new  lands, 
and  the  result  was  that  the  settlements  grew  slowly.  But 
by  the  year  1600  about  200,000  Spaniards  were  living  in 
America.  Besides,  there  were  5,000,000  Indians  on  the  main- 
land, many  of  whom  they  had  taught  to  live  like  Christian 

^  Named  for  King  Charles,  whose  name  in  Latin  was  Carolus. 


The  Old  City  Gate  at  St.  Augustine 


12 


DISCOVERERS    AND    EXPLORERS 


men  and  women.  Many  of  these  Indians  were  gathered  in 
villages  or  "missions,"  where  they  were  taught  by  priests  or 
monks.  Unfortunately,  most  of  the  Indians  in  the  islands 
of  the  West  Indies  soon  died  from  disease  and  from  the  hard 
work  which  the  early  Spanish  planters  and  gold-seekers  had 
compelled  them  to  do.  To  take  their  places  the  Spaniards 
had  begun  to  carry  negro  slaves   over  from  Africa. 


The  Lachine  Rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence 

The  rapids  which  stopped  Cartier's  voyage  and  convinced  him  that  the  St.  Lawrence 
was  not  a  passage  way  through  to  the  Pacific  Ocean 

First  French  Attempts  at  Settlement.  —  Fort  CaroHne 
was  not  the  only  settlement  that  the  French  had  attempted 
to  make.  Thirty  years  earher,  in  1534,  Jacques  Cartier  had 
explored  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  found  the  St.  Lawrence 
River.  In  the  following  year  he  sailed  nearly  400  miles  up 
the  great  river  until  the  Lachine  or  China  Rapids  blocked 
his  way.  Six  years  later  he  returned  with  a  band  of  settlers, 
but  the  intense  cold  and  danger  from  the  Indians  made  them 
anxious  to  return  to  France.     So  the  colony  was  given  up. 

First  English  Attempts.  —  The  EngHsh  had  also  tried  to 
make  settlements  in  America.  In  1497,  while  Columbus  was 
still   living,  John  Cabot,  another   ItaKan,  obtained  a  ship 


FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH  EXPLORERS 


13 


from  the  English  king  and  sailed  westward  across  the  stormy 
North  Atlantic.  He  reached  the  coast  of  North  America, 
but  just  where  is  not  known,  except  that  it  was  in  the  region 
of  Nova  Scotia  or  Labrador.  For  many  years  the  English 
seemed  to  forget  about  the  lands  which  he  had  discovered  and 
claimed  for  the  king  of  England. 

But  English  sailors  watched  the  Spaniards  in  the  West 
Indies  and  in  America,  and  envied  them  the  riches  they  were 


^^**"*  ^  X  ^  /  - .  r-^''^  ^-^^^'■^^^'^^i:^ 


^^r^' 


*<-,,j^,,^.,"^-' 


Scene  on  the  Coast  or  Labrador 


gaining.  During  this  period  also  England  and  Spain  were 
fast  becoming  enemies.  Occasionally  an  English  captain 
would  plunder  Spanish  ships  or  towns  just  as  if  he  was  a 
pirate.  The  most  famous  captain  in  England  at  this  time 
was  Francis  Drake,  who  sailed  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  robbed 
Spanish  ships  off  the  coast  of  South  America,  and  finally 
found  his  way  back  to  England  by  the  route  which  Magellan's 
sailors  had  followed.  Queen  EKzabeth  made  him  a  knight 
to  reward  him  for  his  success. 

Another  Enghshman,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  made  several 
attempts  to  plant  a  colony  on  the  coast  of  what  is  now  North 
CaroHna.   He  called  the  region  Virginia,  in  honor  of  Elizabeth, 


14  DISCOVERERS    AND    EXPLORERS 

the  '^ Virgin  Queen."  One  of  these  colonies,  led  by  John 
White  in  1587,  was  made  up  of  about  150  persons,  including 
25  women  and  children.  While  White  was  in  England  seek- 
ing to  obtain  supplies  and  aid  for  the  colony,  the  settlers  were 
either  scattered  or  murdered  by  the  Indians.  No  trace  of 
them  was  ever  found. 

A  Century's  Success.  —  Thus,  at  the  end  of  a  century  of 
discovery  and  exploration,  only  one  settlement,  St.  Augus- 
tine, existed  within  the  present  limits  of  the  United  States. 
But  the  knowledge  of  the  earth  had  been  wonderfully  in- 
creased. It  was  certain  also  that  in  a  few  years  the  men  of 
western  Europe  —  English,  Dutch,  French,  and  Spaniards  — ■ 
would  rival  one  another  in  founding  settlements. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  great  work  has  been  done  by  Americans  in  three  hundred  years 
of  history? 

2.  In  what  ways  were  the  explorers  and  early  settlers  better  oflf  than  the 
Indians? 

3.  Where  did  the  early  emigrants  to  America  obtain  their  knowledge? 

4.  Who  were  the  three  greatest  discoverers?  Why  did  they  make  their 
voyages? 

5.  Why  was  America  named  for  Americus  Vespucius  rather  than  for 
Columbus? 

6.  Who  conquered  Mexico?  What  other  Indian  country  was  conquered 
at  about  the  same  time? 

7.  What  portions  of  the  United  States  did  De  Soto  explore?  Coronado? 
What  settlement  did  the  Spaniards  later  make  in  North  America? 

8.  How  did  the  Spaniards  treat  the  Indians?  Who  took  the  place  of  the 
Indians  in  the  West  Indian  Islands  as  laborers  for  the  Spaniards? 

9.  What  part  of  North  America  did  the  French  explore?  Who  was  their 
first  great  explorer?  Why  did  he  go  up  the  St.  Lawrence?  Where  did  he 
attempt  to  settle?     Why  did  he  fail? 

10.  What  part  of  North  America  did  the  English  explore?  Who  were  their 
explorers?     Where  did  the  English  attempt  to  settle?    WTiy  did  they  fail? 

EXERCISES 

I.  Make  a  list  of  the  tools  and  machines  which  settlers  had  three  hundred 
years  ago  and  which  we  have  now. 


FIVE   FAMOUS   VOYAGES 


IS 


i6 


DISCOVERERS    AND    EXPLORERS 


2.  Prepare  a  list  of  the  principal  explorers  and  conquerors  in  the  period  of 
discoveries,  with  the  places  which  they  discovered  or  conquered,  and  the  dates. 

3.  Study  the  maps  of  this  chapter  for  the  effect  of  discoveries  and 
explorations  on  the  knowledge  of  the  New  World.  Make  on  the  blackboard 
or  in  a  notebook  a  copy  of  Behaim's  globe,  page  4;  add  coast  lines  and 
countries  discovered  or  explored  by  Columbus,  Magellan,  De  Soto,  Coronado, 
Cabot,  and  Carder,  in  order  to  show  the  growth  of  knowledge  as  a  result  of 
their  combined  work. 

Important  Dates: 

1492.   The  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus. 

152 1.   One  of    Magellan's  ships    completes  the  first  voyage    around  the 

world. 
1 541.   The  discovery  of  the  Mississippi  by  De  Soto. 
1565.  The  founding  of  St.  Augustine. 

Readings :  A  list  of  readings  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  book. 


Ship  of  1492 


CHAPTER  II 


GAINING  A  FOOTHOLD   ON  THE   ATLANTIC   SHORE 

Unexplored  America.  —  In  1600  most  of  the  region  now 
included  in  the  United  States  was  not  even  explored.  The 
followers  of  the  unfortunate  De  Soto  had  floated  down  the 
Mississippi  to    its  mouth, 


and  Coronado  had  marched 
over  much  of  the  South- 
west, but  neither  they  nor 
the  other  Spanish  adven- 
turers attempted  to  explore 
the  region  thoroughly. 
The  French  had  gone  no 
further  than  the  Lachine 
Rapids  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence. The  vast  plains  and 
forests  of  the  upper  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  had  not  been 
seen  by  white  men.  And 
yet  these  lands  were  a  prize 
richer  than  Mexico  or  Peru, 
not  because  of  silver  and 
gold  in  the  treasure- 
houses  of  imaginary  cities,      ,,      ,     .       ,        ,     ^    ,. ,    ^     , 

"  -^  Map  showing  where  the  Enghsh,    Dutch, 

but   because   of    the    wealth    and    French    explorers    of   about    1600    ex- 
of     soil,    forest,    and     mine,    Pected  to  find  the  South  Sea  or  Pacific  Ocean 

which  would  some  day  give  work  to  milHons  of  men  and 
women. 


Supposed  Extent  of  North  America 


i8      SETTLEMENTS    ON   THE    ATLANTIC    SHORE 

The  Rivals  of  the  Spaniards.  —  When  the  new  century 
opened  the  Spaniards  were  less  able  to  struggle  for  the  prize 
than  in  the  days  of  Cortes,  De  Soto,  and  Coronado.  It  is 
true  that  they  had  conquered  Portugal,  and  that  their  king 
now  possessed  the  rich  colonies  which  the  Portuguese  captains 
had  founded  in  the  East  Indies.  But  at  the  same  time  the 
Spaniards  had  wasted  much  money  and  many  lives  in  a  quar- 
rel with  the  Dutch,  who  were  once  Spain's  loyal  subjects. 
The  Dutch  were  hardy  sailors  and  were  not  afraid  to  attack 
Spanish  ships.  Indeed,  they  were  usually  victorious  in  such 
battles.  The  Enghsh  also  had  a  strong  fleet  and  had  in  1588 
nearly  destroyed  the  "Invincible  Armada,"  the  largest  fleet 
the  Spaniards  ever  had.  France  was  another  dangerous  rival 
of  Spain,  especially  under  her  new  king,  Henry  of  Navarre, 
the  first  of  the  Bourbon  line  of  kings,  who  would  not  allow 
the  Spaniards  to  treat  French  settlements  as  Menendez  did. 

Hindrances  to  Spanish  Success.  —  Another  thing  hindered 
the  Spaniards.  Their  king  considered  the  colonies  his  own 
possessions,  and  no  one  could  go  to  them  without  his  consent. 
He  was  especially  anxious  to  prevent  any  but  steadfast  Roman 
CathoHc  Christians  from  going.  The  ships  for  America  set 
out  always  from  a  single  port,  at  first  Seville  and  later  Cadiz. 
They  were  obliged  to  wait  until  there  were  enough  to  form 
a  fleet.  The  enterprising  seamen  and  merchants  of  other 
countries  were  hindered  by  no  such  restraints.  Although  the 
kings  of  England  and  of  France  considered  newly  discovered 
lands  their  possessions,  they  were  willing  to  give  any  man, 
or  any  group  of  men,  rich  enough  to  fit  out  an  expedition,  per- 
mission to  make  settlements,  to  trade  with  the  natives,  and, 
sometimes,  even  to  make  war  on  rivals.  The  Dutch  also 
acted  in  the  same  way. 

East  India  Companies.  —  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  1600, 
granted  such  a  permission,  called  a  charter,  to  the  East 
India  Company,  which  was  to  trade  beyond  the  Cape  of 


SPANISH,    DUTCH,    AND    FRENCH 


19 


Good  Hope.  Dutch  captains  had  been  saihng  to  the  East 
Indies  for  several  years,  and  in  1602  the  Dutch  formed  an 
East  India  Company.  It  was  certain  that  the  Dutch,  the 
Enghsh,  and  the  French  would  soon  form  companies  to  trade 
and  make  settlements  in  the  Western  Indies;  that  is,  in  what 
we  call  America.  If  they  should,  the  Spaniards  would  have 
little  chance  of  adding  much  to 
what  they  possessed,  and  might 
lose  even  that. 

Champlain's  First  Settlement. 
—  Of  the  three  rivals  of  Spain  the 
French  were  the  first  to  attempt 
a  settlement.  Samuel  de  Cham- 
plain,  who  had  already  visited  the 
New  World  in  the  service  of  the 
Spanish  king,  sailed  for  America  in 
1604,  this  time  under  the  author- 
ity of  King  Henry  of  France.  He 
was  in  the  employ  of  a  nobleman  named  De  Monts.  De 
Monts  had  received  from  the  king  the  right  to  settle  and  rule 
the  region  between  what  is  now  New  Jersey  and  Nova  Scotia. 
About  120. men  were  in  Champlain's  party.  Unfortunately 
for  them  they  attempted  to  settle  on  a  barren  island  in  the 
St.  Croix  River,  which  is  part  of  the  present  boundary  between 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  Many  died  the  first  winter, 
and  the  rest  moved  across  the  Bay  of  Fundy  to  a  place  they 
called  Port  Royal. 

Champlain  misses  an  Opportunity.  —  Champlain  carefully 
explored  the  coast  to  the  southward,  but  missed  the  excel- 
lent harbors  where  the  EngHsh  afterward  built  Portland  and 
Boston.  He  entered  the  harbor  of  what  was  soon  to  become 
Plymouth,  and  sailed  around  Cape  Cod.  He  was  again 
unlucky  enough  not  to  find  Narragansett  Bay,  where  New- 
port was  built  later,  or  to  pass  through  Long  Island  Sound 


Samuel  de  Champlain 


20      SETTLEMENTS    ON   THE    ATLANTIC    SHORE 


to  the  beautiful  harbor  now  belonging  to  New  York  City. 
He  concluded  that  there  was  a  better  chance  for  a  colony  in 
the  region  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  He  missed  a  great 
opportunity,  leaving  the  way  open  for  the  EngHsh. 

The  Virginia  Company.  —  Meanwhile  several  Enghshmen 
had  crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  one  of  them  made  such  an 

enthusiastic  report 
about  the  places  he 
visited,  which  were  on 
the  Kennebec  River, 
that  his  fellow  coun- 
trymen were  eager  to 
found  a  colony. 
Raleigh's  ill  luck 
showed  them  that  the 
best  way  was  to  form 
a  company  somewhat 
1^  like  the  East  India 
g|  Company.  Raleigh 
had  spent  on  his  ven- 
tures a  sum  almost 
equal  to  a  milHon  dol- 
lars, according  to  the 
present  value  of  money,  and  yet  he  had  failed,  partly  for  the 
lack  of  more  money.  What  might  be  called  a  stock  company 
or  corporation  was  therefore  formed  in  1606.  Queen  Elizabeth 
had  died,  and  James  I  was  on  the  throne.  From  him  the 
company  obtained  the  right  to  settle  in  America  between 
the  thirty-eighth  and  forty-fifth  parallels  of  latitude.  The 
region  was  still  called  Virginia,  as  Raleigh  had  named  it. 
The  company  was,  therefore,  called  the  Virginia  Company.  ^ 
It  was  made  up  of  noblemen,  wealthy  landholders,  and  rich 

^  The  company  was  made  up  of  two  groups,  one  of  Londoners,  the  other  of 
men  from  the  west  of  England.     The  first  group  was  called  the  London  Com- 


SiR  Walter  Raleigh 


THE    FIRST   ENGLISH    COLONY  2i 

merchants.  Each  one  who  gave  a  sum  equal  to  $300  became 
owner  or  proprietor  of  a  share,  and  was,  of  course,  entitled 
to  a  part  of  the  profits  coming  from  trade  with  the  Indians 
•or  from  discoveries  of  gold. 

"Eastward  Ho!" — Some  members  of  the  company  bought 
shares  in  the  enterprise  because  they  thought  it  patriotic 
to  obtain  lands  in  America  for  the  king.  Others  wanted  to 
Christianize  the  Indians.  Still  others  expected  to  increase 
their  fortunes.  A  popular  play,  called  Eastward  Ho!  put 
on  the  stage  in  1605,  spoke  of  Virginia  as  a  land  where  gold 
was  more  plentiful  than  copper  in  England.  This  play  also 
said  that  the  natives  went  out  on  holidays  to  gather  rubies 
and  diamonds  to  hang  on  their  children's  coats  and  to  stick 
in  their  caps.  Such  tales  were  like  those  which  caused 
De  Soto  to  search  for  the  Gilded  Man,  and  Coronado  for  the 
Seven  Cities  of  Cibola. 

The  Spaniards  aroused.  —  Two  years  before  the  Virginia 
Company  was  formed  King  James  had  made  peace  with  the 
king  of  Spain,  so  that  the  company's  ships  were  not  likely  to 
be  attacked  on  their  way  to  America.  But  when  the  Span- 
iards heard  that  Englishmen  were  going  to  the  New  World, 
the  Spanish  ambassador  at  London  declared  that  America 
was  alf  a  part  of  the  Indies,  which  belonged  to  his  king.  King 
James  listened  poHtely,  but  said  that  there  could  be  no  wrong 
in  settHng  on  lands  which  the  Spaniards  had  not  occupied. 

The  Settlement  at  Jamestown.  —  A  large  part  of  the  year 
1606  was  spent  by  the  managers  of  the  company  in  obtaining 
men  for  their  proposed  colony.  What  promises  they  made 
and  what  sort  of  men  they  persuaded  to  go,  will  be  told  in 
another  chapter.  Here  it  is  enough  to  show  the  importance 
of  the  colony  in  the  struggle  between  the  Spaniards,  English, 
French,  and  Dutch,  for  the  best  parts  of   North  America. 

pany,  the  second  the  Plymouth  Company.  It  was  the  London  Company  which 
founded  Jamestown. 


22       SETTLEMENTS    ON    THE   ATLANTIC    SHORE 


The  expedition  set  out  just  before  Christmas,  1606.  After 
five  wearisome  months  on  the  ocean  it  reached  Chesapeake 
Bay.  The  officers  finally  chose  as  a  suitable  place  for  their 
settlement  a  small  peninsula  running  out  into  a  stream  which 
they  called  the  James  River.     On  May   14,  1607,  the  party 

landed  and  be- 
gan to  build  a 
villago^  naming 
i  t  Jamestown, 
after  the  king. 

Attempts  t  o 
find  the  South 
Sea.  — The  set- 
tlers did  not 
know  that  near- 
ly three  thou- 
sand miles  sep- 
arated them 
from  the  South 
Sea  o  r  Pacific 
Ocean,  and 
while  some  were  building  houses  others  hurried  off  to  see  if 
Chesapeake  Bay  by  any  chance  was  the  passage  to  the  Indies 
for  which  so  many  sailors  had  looked.  If  it  was,  the  founders 
of  the  colony  would  be  well  paid  for  the  time  and  money  they 
had  expended.  The  most  famous  of  these  searchers  after  a 
route  to  the  South  Sea  was  Captain  John  Smith. 

Settlement  at  Quebec.  —  The  next  year  Champlain  made 
his  first  settlement  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  was  situated 
at  a  point  where  the  river,  ordinarily  very  broad,  narrows  to 
less  than  a  mile  in  width.  The  strait,  or  narrows,  was  called 
'^ Quebec"  by  the  Indians,  and  this  name  was  given  to  Cham- 
plain's  village.  Three  years  later  he  made  the  beginnings  of 
another  settlement  farther  up  the  river  at  Montreal. 


^^^^^' 


Ruins  of  the  Brick  Church 
Built  at  Jamestown  in  1639 


THE    FRENCH   AND    DUTCH 


23 


Henry  Hudson.  —  About  the  same  time  an  Englishman, 
Henry  Hudson,  who  had  entered  the  service  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company,  reached  America  in  search  of  a  pas- 
sage to  China.  He  sailed  as  far  south  as  Chesapeake  Bay, 
and  then  turned  northward.  Soon  he  entered  the  strait  now 
called  the  Narrows,  which  separates  New  York  harbor  from 
the  sea.     He  discovered  the  broad  and  beautiful  river  which 


The  First  View  or  Quebec 


stretches  northward  among  the  hills  and  which  now  bears 
his  name.  As  the  water  was  salt  and  the  tides  were  strong, 
he  thought  this  might  be  the  passage  for  which  he  was  looking. 
It  is  not  strange  that  he  was  deceived.  The  Hudson  for  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  inland  is  not  a  true  river,  but  a  fiord 
or  deep  channel  into  the  highlands,  with  a  rock  bottom  below 
sea  level.  The  Half  Moon,  Hudson's  ship,  aided  by  wind 
and  tide,  sailed  or  drifted  until  it  was  stopped  by  the  shallows 
near  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Albany.  Hudson  had  not 
discovered  a  passage  to  China,  but  instead  one  of  the  most 
useful  rivers  in  the  world. 

Discovery  of  Hudson  Bay.  —  Two  years  later  Hudson  lost 
his  Ufe,  still  bravely  pursuing  his  search  for  a  passage  to  the 


24      SETTLEMENTS    ON   THE    ATLANTIC    SHORE 

Indies.  This  time  he  was  exploring  in  the  far  north,  and 
entered  that  great  arm  of  the  sea  which,  as  Hudson  Bay,  bears 
his  name.  His  sailors,  enraged  because  of  the  sufferings  his 
venture  compelled  them  to  endure,  mutinied  and  set  him 
adrift  in  a  small  boat. 


The  "Half  Moon"  in  the  Hudson  River 

Settlement  of  New  Amsterdam.  —  Dutch  traders  soon 
visited  the  Hudson  River,  but  fourteen  years  passed  before 
a  regular  settlement  was  made.  In  1623  a  fort  and  a  few 
houses  were  built  on  the  southern  end  of  Manhattan  Island, 
and  the  place  was  called  New  Amsterdam.  The  Dutch  made 
another  small  settlement  up  the  river  at  Fort  Orange,  where 
Albany  is  now  situated. 

Beginnings  of  Massachusetts.  —  The  English  had  by  this 
time  founded  another  settlement,  a  small  party  having  landed 
at  Plymouth  in  1620.  Within  a  few  years  a  group  of  English 
settlements  was  growing  up  on  the  shores  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  another  group  in  Connecticut,  another  in  Rhode  Island, 
and  still  another  in  Maryland. 


EUROPEAN   CLAIMS   IN   AMERICA 


25 


Parts  of  North  America  Occupied  or  Explored  about  1650 


26      SETTLEMENTS    ON   THE    ATLANTIC    SHORE 

A  Foothold  on  the  Atlantic  Shore.  —  What  Raleigh  had 
failed  to  do  had  now  been  done  several  times.  St.  Augustine 
was  no  longer  the  only  settlement  on  the  Atlantic  shore.  The 
EngHsh  had  gained  a  foothold  in  several  places.  Their 
rivals,  the  Dutch  and  the  French,  were  also  there.  But  the 
Atlantic  shore  was  only  the  fringe  of  the  continent. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  parts  of  North  America  had  been  explored  by  1600?  What  parts 
were  unknown? 

2.  Why  were  the  Spaniards  weaker  rivals  in  1600  than  in  the  days  of 
Cortes?  Who  were  the  great  rivals  of  Spain?  What  hindered  the  growth 
of  the  Spanish  colonies? 

3.  What  were  the  East  India  companies  formed  to  do?  Why  were  trading 
companies  likely  to  injure  Spain? 

4.  Which  rival  of  Spain  was  the  first  to  found  a  settlement  in  North  Amer- 
ica? Who  led  the  expedition?  Where  was  the  settlement  made?  What 
coast  did  Champlain  explore? 

5.  How  did  the  English  go  to  work  to  form  a  colony  in  the  New  World? 
Why  was  this  method  better  than  Raleigh's?  What  did  the  Spanish  think  of 
the  plans  of  the  Virginia  Company? 

6.  What  settlement  did  the  Virginia  Company  make?  What  did  the 
leaders  of  the  colony  hope  to  find  near  the  settlement?  * 

7.  Where  did  Champlain  make  other  French  settlements? 

8.  What  parts  of  America  did  the  Dutch  explore?  Where  did  they  make 
a  settlement? 

9.  What  English  settlements  were  made  about  the  time  the  Dutch  made 
their  settlement? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Prepare  a  list  of  reasons  why  the  English  wanted  a  colony  in  America. 

2.  Point  out,  on  an  outline  map  of  North  America,  the  regions  the  rivals 
had  explored  and  the  places  where  each  had  obtained  a  foothold. 

Important  Dates : 

1604.   Beginning  of  a  French  colony  at  St.  Croix. 

1607.  Settlement  of  English  at  Jamestown. 

1608.  Champlain  founds  a  French  colony  at  Quebec. 
1620.   Beginning  of  English  settlement  of  New  England. 
1623.   Dutch  settlement  at  New  Amsterdam. 


CHAPTER  III 


EXPLORING  THE   MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY 


The   Appalachian  Barrier.  —  The  more 
of  the  early  settlements  in  America  were 
the    country    westward.       A     map- 
maker  nearly  fifty  years  after  James- 
town   was   founded    said    that    the 
*'Sea  of  China  and  the  Indies"  was 
only  ten  days'  march  from  the  head 
of  the  James  River.     As 
Columbus  had   found  a 
barrier   continent  in  his 
attempt  to  reach  Asia,  so 
the     settlers     found     a 
mountain  barrier  in  their 
way.        To     understand 
their  task  it  is  necessary 
to  see  what  sort  of 
an     obstacle     this 
barrier  offered. 

Jamestown  was 
built  upon  the 
coastal  plain,  which 
rises  only  a  few 
feet  above  sea- 
level.  Back  of  the 
coastal  plain,  some- 
times as  far  as  150 


venturesome  men 
anxious  to  explore 


The 
Great 
Moun- 
tain 
Barrier 

BACK   OF 

THE 

English 
Settle- 
ments 

Note  how  far  north 
and  south  this  naountain 
barrier  extends,  making 
it  difficult  for  the  early- 
settlers  to  move  far  to 
the  west. 


28 


EXPLORING   THE    MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY 


miles,  is  a  broken  country,  like  New  England  in  appearance, 
called  the  Piedmont,^  and  still  farther  back,  a  range  of 
mountains.  This  range,  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  pre- 
sented for  1,300  miles  an  almost  unbroken  wall  to  the  advance 
of  explorers  or  settlers. 

Nature  of  the  Barrier.  —  The  Appalachians  do  not  form 
a  single  barrier,  but  a  system  of  barriers.  Their  eastern 
ridges  fall  away  into  low  hills  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  the 
highlands  of  New  Jersey,  and  the  pahsades  of  the  Hudson. 
In  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  farther  south,  they  form  a  moun- 
tain range,  called  the  Blue  Ridge.  West  of  these  ridges,  or 
of  the  hills  which  prolong  them,  Ues  the  Appalachian  Valley, 
also  full  of  ridges  difficult  to  cross.  Still  farther  west  rises 
the  steep  slope  of  the  Alleghany  and  Cumberland  plateau,  a 
thousand  or  more  feet  in  height.     In  Pennsylvania  this  is 

called  the  Alle- 
ghany Moun- 
tains. The  west- 
ern slope  of  the 
plateau  falls 
away  gradually 
toward  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  or 
the  Great  Lakes. 
The  Mohawk  Passage.  —  The  only  real  break  in  the  barrier 
is  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk,  a  river  which  flows  into  the 
Hudson  near  Albany.  There  the  barrier  sinks  to  a  height 
of  only  445  feet  above  sea  level.  Farther  south  the  passes 
or  passage  ways  are  from  1,500  to  3,000  feet  high. 

The  Westward  Flowing  Rivers.  —  In  the  south  as  well  as 
the  north  the  rivers  show  the  natural  routes  across  the  moun- 
tains. Explorers  going  up  stream  along  rivers  which  cross 
the  coastal  plain,  passing  through  the  rough  Piedmont  coun- 

1  Piedmont:    French  for  "  foot  of  mountain." 


'^^^'■^^rC^^K 


The  Mohawk  River 


THE    WESTWARD    BARRIER  29 

try,  and  climbing  the  mountains  beyond,  would  find  that  they 
were  not  far  from  the  head-waters  of  rivers  flowing  westward 
through  mountain  passes  into  the  Mississippi  Valley.  For 
example,  the  upper  waters  of  the  James  are  near  the  streams 
which  make  up  the  Kanawha  and  flow  finally  into  the  Ohio. 
By  following  the  course  of  other  rivers,  explorers  could  find  the 
sources  of  the  Tennessee,  which  makes  its  way  into  the  Ohio 
near  the  Mississippi.  But  all  this  was  very  difficult,  because 
in  many  places  neither  boats  nor  canoes  could  be  used,  and  the 
journey  must  be  made  on  foot,  often  through  trackless  for- 
ests or  underbrush,  and  along  steep  and  rocky  hillsides. 

The  Best  Passages.  —  The  Appalachian  barrier  explains 
why  more  than  a  century  passed  before  the  EngHsh  settlers 
on  the  coast  found  their  way,  except  in  rare  cases,  to  the 
valleys  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi.  The  French  at 
Quebec  and  Montreal  were  much  more  conveniently  situated. 
If  they  succeeded  in  opening  a  route  to  the  Great  Lakes, 
they  could  reach  several  places  from  which,  by  short  carries 
or  portages,^  they  could  go  in  canoes  into  the  Mississippi. 
Had  the  Spaniards  used  the  knowledge  De  Soto's  followers 
carried  back,  they  might  have  been  still  better  off,  and  have 
entered  the  great  valley  from  the  south.  The  Dutch  were 
better  situated  than  the  Enghsh,  north  and  south  of  them, 
because  from  the  Hudson  they  could  follow  up  the  valley 
of  the  Mohawk.  But  something  besides  the  Appalachians 
kept  the  Dutch,  as  well  as  other  settlers,  from  venturing 
far  westward.     This  second  obstacle  was  the  Indian  tribes. 

The  Indian  Barrier.  —  Columbus  had  seen  Indians  as  soon 
as  he  discovered  San  Salvador.  Cortes  had  conquered  the 
Aztec  Indians  in  Mexico.  Coronado  had  visited  the  Zuni 
Indians  of  the  southwest,  and  had  seen  others  on  the  plains 
farther  north.  De  Soto  had  fought  with  Indians  many  times 
in  his  struggle  through  the  southern  forests  to  the  banks  of 

1  Places  where  two  bodies  of  water  are  near  together. 


30 


EXPLORING   THE    MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY 


Bark  Wigwam  of  the  Eastern  Indians 


the  Mississippi.     To  meet  or  fight  with  Indians  was,  there- 
fore, nothing  new  for  the  settlers  of  America. 

How  the  Indians  lived.  —  The  northern  Indians  were  more 
barbarous  than  the  Zunis  or  Aztecs.  They  did  not  Hve  in 
towns  hke  the  pueblos,  or  like  those  in  Mexico.    Most  of  their 

houses     were    merely 


rude  tents  of  skins  or 
bark.  They  raised  to- 
bacco, corn,  and  a  few 
vegetables,  the  women 
doing  all  the  work. 
The  men  did  Kttle  but 
hunt  or  fight  neigh- 
boring tribes.  Until 
they  obtained  guns 
from  the  settlers,  the 
Indians  used  bows  and  arrows.  Their  arrow  and  spear-heads 
were  of  flint.  Their  axes  and  their  bowls  also  were  of  stone. 
They  were  very  glad  to  obtain  steel  knives  and  axes  from 
the  settlers,  for  stone  tools  are  hard  to  work  with. 

The  Territories  of  the  Indians ;  the  Iroquois.  —  The  Indians 
had  many  chiefs,  but  no  government  like  that  of  civilized 
peoples.  A  tribe  might  be  made  up  of  many  villages.  Its 
lands  had  no  fixed  boundaries  or  frontiers,  but  its  members 
knew  their  hunting  grounds,  and  were  ready  to  fight  against 
anyone  who  entered  them.  Sometimes  tribes  were  united  in  a 
confederacy  by  agreements  or  treaties.  Such  a  confederacy 
was  the  Iroquois,  or  ''Five  Nations,"  who  lived  in  the  region 
now  included  in  New  York,  northern  Pennsylvania,  and 
northeastern  Ohio.  Had  the  settlers  tried  to  force  a  way 
through  the  Mohawk  Valley,  the  Iroquois  would  have 
disputed  every  step. 

Other  Indian  Tribes.  —  The  Indians  in  Canada  and  what 
is  now  New  England  were  Algonquins,  enemies  of  the  Iro- 


R. 


I P  P  E  W  AS 


^o 


^^l^^rw.Ny"'"!?!- 


^esapeake  B.> 


fcape-F^'^^ 


a 

□ 

n 
n 


I^nd  more  than  10,000  ft. 

above  the  sea  level. 
Land  between    6,000    and 

10,000  ft.  above  sea  level. 
Land    between    1,C00  and 

6,000  ft.  above  sea  level. 
Land  less   than   1,000  ft. 

above  sea  leveL 


SECXION  SHOWING  PARTOE 
HHWEbUNDLAND. 

6!0  55 


Q 


,c^ 


STRUTHERS  Sc  CO.,   ENGR'S  N.  Y 


Greenwich      76 


THE   INDIANS  31 

quois.  The  Indians  whose  lands  lay  just  beyond  the  Hne  of 
early  southern  settlements  were  the  Cherokees,  —  related  to 
the  Iroquois,  —  and  the  Creeks  and  Choctaws,  who  belonged 
to  another  great  family  called  the  Muskogee. 


'Qm^''^<^-^'','  '"^  wm^i:w'- 


.^y^^Mf^-^'"  '.r'/f/-^;X-'< 


'■<)"-!'/m  ■ 


A  Dwelling  House  of  the  Iroquois 

Champlain  and  the  Indian  Barrier.  —  Champlain  first 
learned  how  strong  was  the  Indian  barrier.  He  wished  to 
gain  the  good  will  of  his  Indian  neighbors,  the  Algonquin 
tribes,  and  consented  in  1609  to  join  a  war-party  against 
the  Iroquois.  The  Indians  carried  him  in  their  Hght  birch- 
bark  canoes  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  RicheHeu,  and  so 
to  the  lake  which  now  bears  his  name.  The  Indians  soon 
discovered  a  war-party  of  the  enemy  near  where  Ticonderoga 
now  stands. 

Champlain' s  Fight  with  the  Iroquois.  —  Champlain  and 
his  two  white  companions  put  on  their  armor  and  made 
ready  their  guns.  His  Indian  allies  put  him  at  their  head. 
"I  marched,"  he  said,  ^'some  twenty  paces  in  advance  of  the 
rest,  until  I  was  within  about  thirty  paces  of  the  enemy,  who 
at  once  noticed  me,  and,  halting,  gazed  at  me,  as  I  did  also 
at  them.  When  I  saw  them  making  a  move  to  fire  at  us,  I 
rested  my  musket  against  my  cheek,  and  aimed  directly  at 
one  of  the  three  chiefs.  With  the  same  shot,  two  fell  to  the 
ground;  and  one  of  their  men  was  so  wounded  that  he  died 


32 


EXPLORING   THE    MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY 


sometime  after.  I  had  loaded  my  musket  with  four  balls. 
When  our  side  saw  this  shot  so  favorable  for  them,  they  began 
to  raise  such  loud  cries  that  one  could  not  have  heard  it 
thunder.  Meanwhile,  the  arrows  flew  on  both  sides.  The 
Iroquois  were  greatly  astonished  that  two  men  had  been 
so  quickly  killed.  ...  As  I  was  loading  again,  one  of  my  com- 
panions fired  a  shot  from  the  woods,  which  astonished  them 


Champlain's  Fight  with  the  Iroquois 
After  the  drawing  by  Champlain  in  his  Voyages 

anew  to  such  a  degree  that,  seeing  their  chiefs  dead,  they 
lost  courage  and  took  to  flight,  abandoning  their  camp  and 
fort,  and  fleeing  into  the  woods." 

A  Costly  Victory.  —  A  few  years  later  Champlain  joined 
another  Algonquin  party  which  planned  to  attack  a  fortified 
village  of  the  Iroquois  near  where  Syracuse  is  situated.  He 
was  not  so  successful,  and  he  and  his  friends  were  forced  to 
retreat.  These  expeditions  secured  for  the  French  the  friend- 
ship of  the  Algonquins  and  the  hatred  of  the  Iroquois,  who 
murdered  all  the  Frenchmen  they  could  lay  hands  on. 

Henry  Hudson  and  the  Iroquois.  —  It  happened  that  a 
few  weeks  after  Champlain's  battle  with  the  Iroquois,  Henry 


DISCOVERY   OF   THE    GREAT   LAKES 


33 


Hudson  was  sailing  up  the  river  now  named  for  him.  He 
met  other  bands  of  Iroquois,  received  them  on  board  the 
Half  Moon,  and  gave  them  a  feast.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
the  Iroquois  Uked  the  Dutch  better  than  tlfe  French,  especially 
as  the  Dutch  settlers  at  New  Amsterdam  and  Fort  Orange 
were  ready  to  trade  knives,  tools,  guns, 
and  hquors  for  furs. 

Discovery  of  the  Great  Lakes.  — 
Champlain  was  not  content  with  his 
exploration  of  the  region  now  included 
in  northern  New  York.  Like  all  the 
others,  he  was  anxious  to  discover  some 
passage  to  the  South  Sea.  He  visited 
Lake  Ontario,  but  not  Lake  Erie, 
which  was  surrounded  by  the  hunting 
grounds  of  the  hostile  Iroquois.  His 
most  wonderful  journey  took  him  to 
Lake  Huron.  He  followed  the  Ottawa 
River  to  its  source,  crossed  over  to 
streams  flowing  westward  through  a 
chain  of  small  lakes,  and  paddled  down 
to  Georgian  Bay  and  on  to  Lake  Huron. 
Before  he  died,  in  1635,  his  men  had 
discovered  Lake  Superior  and  Lake 
Michigan. 

Father  Marquette. — After  the  death  of  Champlain  other 
Frenchmen  pushed  forward  the  work  of  exploring  the  west- 
ern country.  Some  of  these  were  missionaries,  especially 
Jesuits  or  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  who  went  into 
this  region  to  estabhsh  mission  stations  among  the  Indians. 
Father  Jacques  Marquette  was  one  of  these.  The  Indians 
from  time  to  time  gave  him  reports  of  a  great  river  beyond 
the  Lakes.  Marquette  thought  that  this  might  lead  to  the 
South  Sea. 


Statue  of  Marquette 
At  Marquette,  Mich. 


34  EXPLORING   THE    MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY 

Discovery  of  the  Mississippi.  —  In  1673,  ^^  company  with 
Louis  Joliet,  a  fur  trader,  and  five  men,  Marquette  set  out 
in  search  of  the  river.  Their  outfit  consisted  of  two  canoes 
and  a  supply  of  sAoked  beef  and  Indian  corn.  From  Lake 
Michigan  they  turned  into  the  Fox  River.  Near  the  head 
of  the  Fox,  Indian  guides  showed  them  an  easy  path  or 
portage  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Wisconsin  River.  They 
paddled  down  the  Wisconsin  until  they  reached  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  great  river  that  the  Indians  had  described.  Mar- 
quette followed  its  course  for  a  month,  passing  the  point 
where  the  swift  but  muddy  waters  of  the  Missouri  joined  it. 
He  also  saw  the  lonely  forest  which  was  to  be  the  site  of 
St.  Louis,  and  passed  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas  River,  not  far  from  where  De  Soto 
had  crossed  the  Mississippi  more  than  a  hundred  years 
before,  the  little  party  turned  back.  They  had  discovered 
that  the  Mississippi  would  not  carry  them  to  the  Pacific. 

In  1674  Marquette  and  two  companions  built  a  log-cabin 
where  Chicago  now  stands  and  spent  the  winter  there.  His 
men  killed  deer,  buffalo,  and  wild  turkeys  close  to  their  hut. 
The  friendly  Indians  occasionally  visited  them,  bringing 
corn  and  game. 

La  Salle.  —  The  greatest  of  French  explorers  was  La  Salle. 
Moved  by  the  story  of  Marquette's  discovery,  he  resolved 
to  trace  the  great  river  to  its  mouth  and  claim  the  whole 
region  for  his  king  and  country.  He  had  already  had  many 
adventures  among  the  hostile  Iroquois  near  Lake  Ontario 
and  Lake  Erie.  Once  he  had  built  a  Httle  vessel,  the  Griffin^ 
Sit  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Erie,  for  use  in  the  fur  trade  on 
the  Great  Lakes,  but  this  was  soon  destroyed  in  a  storm  on 
Lake  Michigan.  He  always  had  some  new  plan  for  the  fur 
trade  and  for  exploration  of  the  West.  He  was  the  first  of 
his  fellow  countr3anen  to  see  the  value  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  for  agriculture  and  commerce.     Twice  he  attempted 


LA  SALLE'S    EXPLORATIONS 


35 


the  long,  difficult  voyage  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Missis- 
sippi in  frail  canoes,  and  twice  he  failed.  The  hostihty  of 
the  bands  of  Indians,  the  loss  of  suppKes  and  canoes,  the 
hardships  of  the  northern  winter,  and  the  sickness  of  his 
men  turned  him  back.  Finally,  in  1682,  he  was  successful, 
but  only  after  toiling  through 
snow  and  over  frozen  fields, 
almost  as  if  he  were  searching 
for  the  North  Pole. 

La  Salle  explores  the  Missis- 
sippi. —  La  Salle's  little  com- 
pany of  French  woodsmen  and 
Indians  left  Lake  Michigan  in 
midwinter  and  dragged  their 
canoes  over  the  ice  to  the  head- 
waters of  the  Illinois,  and  pad- 
dled down  the  dangerous  stream, 
in  the  midst  of  breaking  ice,  to 
the  Mississippi.  After  they 
reached  the  Mississippi  their  task  was  easier,  although  their 
frail  canoes  were  often  in  peril.  In  the  balmy  spring  of 
1682,  after  a  voyage  of  three  months  and  a  half,  they  arrived 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  La  Salle  solemnly  took  possession 
of  the  whole  valley,  including,  he  said,  ''all  the  nations, 
peoples,  provinces,  cities,  towns,  villages,  mines,  minerals, 
fisheries,  streams,  and  rivers."  This  was  a  way  explorers 
had  of  claiming  everything.  He  set  up  a  pole  bearing  the 
arms  of  France,  with  an  inscription  or  writing  giving  the 
date  and  the  king's  name.  He  also  buried  a  leaden  plate  simi- 
larly marked.  A  wooden  cross  was  planted  beside  the  pole. 
He  named  the  region  Louisiana  in  honor  of  King  Louis  XIV. 

La  Salle  attempts  to  found  a  Settlement. —  La  Salle,  not 
content  with  discovering  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  planned 
to  build  a  fort  and  estabHsh  regular  settlements.     This  would 


Robert  Cavelier,  Sieur 
DE  La  Salle 


36 


EXPLORING   THE    MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY 


''/ft  ROSALIE  I    (->                 /      / 

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t+                 I  LoBlCE    /         U 

TV        Ei'Loxi^  fi'^WACpA 


^j^.ST.LOUlS 


NEW  ORLEANS 
VS         cCS^vis-  1  71  8 


G  Z7  i  F%;O^F     MEXICO 


^  \^t-fRouteofLaSaUe\ 
great  voyage  of 


^**'**~^i"'>  ^  ^^»bUshajeJtle_me_Ht 


discovery. 


Map  of  La  Salle's  ExpLORAxioNb 

keep  the  Spaniards  out,  and  would  also  become  the  center 
of  a  large  trade  with  the  Indians.  After  his  return  to  France 
he  fitted  out  an  expedition  and  sailed  for  the  New  World. 
He  tried  to  find  his  way  through  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  but  missed  it  and  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Texas  some  four  hundred  miles  west  of  his  goal. 
His  vessels  were  so  greatly  damaged  that  he  abandoned  them, 
and  tried  to  reach  the  Mississippi  by  journeying  on  foot. 


ENGLISH   ATTEMPTS    TOWARD    THE    WEST      37 

Buffalo  meat  made  up  what  he  called  their  ''daily  bread/' 
and  the  skins  replaced  their  worn-out  clothing.  For  more 
than  two  years  he  struggled  against  obstacles.  It  was  the 
old  story  of  De  Soto  and  his  wanderings  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  over  again,  except  that  La  Salle  was  farther  south 
and  west.  Great  prairies,  hostile  Indians,  swamps  and 
bayous,  and  tangled  and  matted  forests  obstructed  his  way. 
The  leader  of  the  expedition  finally  lost  his  life  on  the  journey. 


The  Flat  Land  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Mississippi 

His  followers,  weary  of  their  hardships,  mutinied  and  killed 
him.  But  not  many  years  afterward  other  Frenchmen  were 
more  fortunate  and  made  a  settlement  on  the  Gulf  coast 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  English  Attempts  to  cross  the  Barrier.  —  The  great 
Appalachian  barrier,  which  faced  the  English  settlements, 
kept  the  English  from  reaching  the  Mississippi  Valley  as  soon 
as  the  French.  But  they  made  brave  efforts,  lured  on  by 
the  hope  of  finding  an  "Indian  Sea."  In  September,  1671, 
two  Virginians,  Captain  Thomas  Batts  and  Robert  Fallam, 
after  crossing  the  rough  Piedmont  country  and  climbing  the 
Blue  Ridge,  discovered  a  river  flowing  northwest.  This  was 
the  New  River,  which  empties  into  the  Kanawha.  They 
went  on  until  they  reached  a  place  near  the  present  boundary 


38  EXPLORING   THE    MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY 

of  Virginia  and  West  Virginia.  Two  years  later  James 
Needham  succeeded  in  crossing  the  Blue  Ridge  farther  south 
and  reaching  the  head- waters  of  the  Tennessee. 

Why  the  English  could  wait.  —  It  was  fortunate  that  few 
Englishmen  were  tempted  by  such  ventures.  The  settlements 
on  the  coast  needed  all  who  came  from  Europe  to  clear  the 
fields,  plant  crops,  build  towns,  and  open  trade  with  one 
another  and  with  Europe.  There  would  be  time  enough  to 
conquer  the  Mississippi  Valley  after  a  newer  England  had 
grown  up  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  barrier  held  back  the  early  explorers  and  settlers?  What  was  the 
Piedmont  country? 

2.  What  natural  break  was  there  in  the  barrier?  Why  were  the  Dutch  and 
the  French  better  situated  than  the  English  for  entering  the  West?  What 
other  barrier  kept  back  the  Dutch? 

3.  How  did  the  Indians  live?  Where  were  the  Iroquois  located?  How 
did  Champlain  make  enemies  of  the  Iroquois?  Why  was  Champlain's  vic- 
tory a  costly  one  for  the  French? 

4.  What  other  parts  of  North  America  did  Champlain  explore?  By  what 
route  did  Marquette  find  the  Mississippi? 

5.  What  part  of  North  America  did  La  Salle  explore?  What  was  he  trying 
to  do  when  he  lost  his  life? 

6.  What  Englishmen  crossed  the  great  barrier  into  the  West?  By  what 
route?  Was  this  before  the  French  discovered  the  Mississippi?  Why  was  it 
better  for  the  English  to  remain  longer  east  of  the  barrier? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Draw  a  map  of  the  Appalachian  barrier  and  of  the  routes  across  or  around 
it  to  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

2.  Gather  pictures  of  Indian  objects,  tools,  houses,  and  the  like,  which 
show  their  manner  of  life. 

3.  Locate  on  an  outline  map  of  North  America  the  hunting  groimds  of  the 
Indian  tribes  which  the  early  settlers  knew. 

4.  How  many  years  passed  between  De  Soto's  discovery  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Marquette's? 

5.  Trace  on  a  map  the  explorations  of  Champlain,  Marquette,  and  La  Salle. 

6.  Trace  the  explorations  of  Fallam  and  Needham. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  FOUNDING  OF  VIRGINIA 

The  First  English  Emigrants.  —  The  first  emigrants  who 
went  to  Virginia  were  ill-prepared  for  the  work  before  them. 
About  half  were  young  men  belonging  to  the  gentry,  or  lesser 
nobility  of  England,  who  had  never  done  a  day's  work.  They 
were  eager  for  gold  and  for  adventure.  Several  of  the  emi- 
grants were  carpenters,  bricklayers,  masons,  and  other  skilled 
laborers.  The  remainder  were  poor  workmen  from  the  farm 
districts,  with  a  few  worthless  criminals  and  vagabonds  from 
London.  No  women  went  on  this  first  voyage.  All  the  men 
were  offered  free  passage  to  Virginia,  and  food,  clothing, 
and  shelter  while  in  the  employ  of  the  company.  When  the 
company  should  be  dissolved,  the  emigrants  were  to  share 
in  the  profits  and  receive  a  part  of  the  land. 

The  First  Voyage.  —  The  voyage  to  America,  was  then 
very  different  from  the  voyage  of  emigrants  nowadays.  The 
ships  were  hardly  bigger  than  those  which  Columbus  had  used 
a  hundred  years  before.  Instead  of  attempting  to  sail  straight 
across  the  stormy  North  Atlantic,  the  sailors  followed  the 
route  of  the  Spaniards,  stopping  at  the  Canary  Islands  and 
at  several  of  the  West  India  Islands.  Contrary  winds  delayed 
them  off  the  English  coast  for  two  months.  Their  provisions 
consisted  mainly  of  salt  meat  and  barley  or  wheat  flour. 
Long  before  their  five  months'  voyage  was  over  the  barley 
spoiled.  Fortunately,  in  the  islands  where  they  stopped  they 
caught  fish  and  birds  for  food.  But  by  the  time  they  landed 
i6  of  the  1 20  men  had  died. 


40 


THE   FOUNDING   OF   VIRGINIA 


Settlement  of  Jamestown.  —  All  were  delighted  to  escape 
from  the  close,  filthy  quarters  on  shipboard  and  wander  about 
on  the  Virginia  shore  that  May  morning  in  1607.     Even  those 

who  did  not  know  how  to 
work  were  willing  at  first  to 
help  in  felling  trees  and 
clearing  the  land  for  tents 
and  a  fort.  The  fort  was 
a  rough  affair,  made  by  lay- 
ing trunks  and  branches  of 
trees  end  to  end  around  a 
half  acre.  Some  cut  out 
clapboards  to  send  back  to 
England  when  the  ships 
returned.  Others  planted  a 
small  field  of  wheat.  They 
made  a  garden,  but  the 
season  for  planting  was  al- 
ready past,  and  the  seeds 
did  not  do  well.  This  was  a  great  misfortune,  because  they 
had  little  left  on  their  ships  to  eat  during  the  months  before 
another  season  would  open.  In  June  the  ships  sailed  back 
to  England  for  suppKes,  but  it  was  seven  months  before 
they  came  again. 

Early  Troubles  at  Jamestown.  —  Meanwhile  two  thirds 
of  those  left  on  shore  died  of  hunger  or  disease.  Jamestown 
was  situated  on  a  low  tongue  of  land,  with  marshes  all  about. 
Soon  malarial  fever  attacked  the  settlers.  They  had  no  pure 
water  to  drink,  and  were  obliged  to  use  the  river  water,  which 
at  high  tide  was  salt  and  at  low  tide  shmy.  Most  of  them 
lived  in  bark  or  brush  tents.  The  only  buildings  were  a 
few  rude  huts,  a  storehouse,  and  a  chapel. 

The  Starving  Time.  —  The  arrival  of  the  ships  in  January, 
1608,  helped  for  a  while,  because  they  had  fresh  supphes  on 


Map  of  Virginia 


JAMESTOWN 


41 


board,  but  they  also  brought  more  emigrants,  which  meant 
more  mouths  to  feed.  Several  times  in  the  next  few  years 
the  settlement  was  on  the  verge  of  ruin.  The  winter  of  1609 
and  1 6 10  was  long  known  as  the  Starving  Time.  After  all 
suppHes  were  consumed, 
the  settlers  ate  their  dogs 
and  horses.  Barely  sixty 
men  were  living  when 
spring  came.  During  the 
first  three  years  the  com- 
pany sent  out  more  than 
300  emigrants,  but  at  the 
end  of  that  time  only 
eighty  were  left. 

Captain  John  Smith.  — 
The  hero  of  those  years  of 
suffering  was  Captain 
John  Smith.  Every  one 
knows    the    story  of    his 

capture  by  the  Indians  and  of  his  rescue  by  Pocahontas,  the 
chieftain's  daughter.  There  are  other  things  better  worth 
remembering  about  him.  Soon  after  his  return  to  James- 
town he  was  made  governor.  He  forced  the  idle  and  lazy  to 
work,  making  the  rule  that  "he  who  would  not  work  should 
not  eat."  In  a  short  time  all  were  busy  chopping  down  trees, 
hewing  out  lumber,  and  gathering  pitch.  The  settlement 
took  on  an  air  of  life  and  energy.  Smith  also  saved  the 
settlers  from  starvation  by  opening  a  profitable  trade  with 
the  Indians.  When  the  Indians  saw  that  the  colonists  were 
in  distress,  they  tried  to  drive  hard  bargains,  offering  only 
small  pieces  of  bread  or  a  few  beans  for  a  piece  of  copper  or 
a  hatchet.  Smith  found  that  the  Indians  liked  colored  beads. 
His  men  also  learned  to  make  chisels  and  hatchets  from  the 
iron  they  discovered  in  Virginia.     WTien  every  other  way 


Captain  John  Smith 


42  THE    FOUNDING   OF   VIRGINIA 

failed,  he  compelled  the  Indians  to  trade.  They  dared  not 
refuse,  for  his  guns  were  more  dangerous  than  their  bows  and 
arrows.  Unfortunately,  in  1609  he  was  hurt  by  an  explosion 
of  powder,  and  went  to  England  to  have  his  wounds  cared 
for.     He  never  returned  to  Virginia. 

Jamestown  not  a  Real  Settlement.  —  In  16 10  the  company 
sent  over  a  harsh  governor,  who  tried  to  make  the  colonists 
work  better  by  introducing  the  strict  discipline  of  an  army 
post.  The  day's  work  began  at  six  with  beat  of  drum.  When 
it  closed  in  the  afternoon,  all  were  marched  to  the  church  for 
prayers.  One  reason  why  the  men  did  not  work  well  was 
that  they  were  working  for  the  company  and  not  for  them- 
selves. Whatever  they  produced  went  to  the  company's 
storehouse.  The  garden  and  the  wheat  fields  belonged 
to  the  company.  The  men  were  fed  and  clothed  from 
the  common  stock.  Life  at  Jamestown  was  more  like  that 
of  a  lumber  camp  or  a  mining  camp  than  of  an  ordinary 
town. 

Working  for  the  Company.  —  The  men  who  were  not  busy 
producing  the  food  needed  for  the  settlement  worked  to 
obtain  loads  for  the  company's  ships.  Lumber  was  about 
the  only  thing  which  could  be  produced  at  first.  Once  the 
Virginians  thought  they  had  found  gold  dust  and  sent  part 
of  a  cargo  of  it  to  England.  Not  until  the  ship  arrived  at 
the  wharf  in  England  was  it  discovered  that  the  gold  dust 
was  only  yellow  sand. 

A  Change  in  the  Company's  Plans.  —  In  16 14  Governor 
Dale  made  an  important  change  in  the  management  of  the 
settlement  in  order  to  encourage  industry.  He  allotted  to  a 
few  of  the  older  colonists  three  acres  of  land  apiece,  expect- 
ing them  to  pay  as  rent  two  and  one  half  barrels  of  corn  an 
acre,  and  to  work  for  the  company  thirty  days  each  year. 
The  plan  was  so  successful  that  the  company  stopped  send- 
ing men  over  to  work  for  it  directly.     The  company  also 


LIFE   IN   VIRGINIA 


43 


encouraged  rich  men  to  take  large  farms  in  Virginia  and 
supply  their  own  laborers. 

Plantations.  —  These  new  settlers  may  be  called  planters 
and  their  farms  plantations.  Their  number  increased,  while 
the  number  of  men  working  for  the  company  decreased. 
The  company  was  obliged  to  content  itself  with  the  rent  of 
its  land,  and  the  trade  carried  on  between  England  and 
Virginia. 

Indentured  Servants.  —  The  planters  obtained  laborers 
by  offering  free  passage,  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  to  men 


1  lii  111-, 


W\  ^rf 


t^ 


Jamestown  in  1622 


willing  to  go  to  Virginia,  but  who  had  no  money  to  pay  their 
expenses.  These  men  in  return  agreed  to  become  servants 
of  the  planters  for  four,  five,  six,  or  sometimes  even  seven  years. 
They  were  commonly  called  indentured  servants,  because  they 
gave  a  bond  or  indenture,  pledging  them  to  serve.  When 
their  term  of  service  ended,  they  could  work  for  wages.  As 
land  was  plentiful  they  might  soon  be  able  to  secure  farms. 
Sometimes  a  poor  but  ambitious  young  man  would  choose 
this  means  of  seeking  his  fortune  in  Virginia. 

The  First  Slaves.  —  The  first  settlers  in  Virginia  did  not 
follow  the  example  of  the  Spaniards  and  make  slaves  of  the 
Indians.  The  main  reason  was  that  it  was  so  easy  for  them 
to  run  away  and  find  refuge  among  the  other  Indians  of  the 


44  THE   FOUNDING   OF   VIRGINIA 

region.  Indians  were  frequently  hired  to  hunt  and  fish  for 
the  planters.  In  1619  a  Dutch  sea-captain  stopped  at  James- 
town, having  on  board  his  ship  some  negroes  whom  he  had 
stolen  from  the  Spaniards  in  the  West  Indies.  He  sold  20 
of  them  to  the  planters.  But  it  was  a  long  time  before  many 
negro  slaves  were  brought  into  the  colony.  The  cost  of 
slaves  varied  from  $100  to  $250,  while  five,  six,  or  seven 
years'  service  of  an  indentured  servant  cost  from  $50  to  $75. 

Beginnings  of  Family  Life  at  Jamestown.  —  Up  to  16 19 
few  women  had  arrived  at  Jamestown.  The  settlers  did  not 
wish  to  marry  Indian  women,  as  many  of  the  Spanish  colo- 
nists had,  although  John  Rolfe,  a  prosperous  planter,  married 
Pocahontas.  The  company  now  concluded,  in  the  quaint 
phrase  of  the  time,  ''that  a  plantation  can  never  flourish 
till  families  be  planted  and  ...  wives  and  children  fix  the 
people  to  the  soil."  Accordingly  the  company  sent  ninety 
young  women  to  Virginia.  The  understanding  was  that  a 
settler  desiring  a  wife  must  gain  the  consent  of  the  woman 
he  chose  and  must  pay  her  passage,  which  amounted  to  120 
pounds  of  tobacco.  The  plan  was  so  successful  that  the 
company  sent  out  many  other  young  women. 

Growth  of  the  Colony.  —  Life  in  Virginia  gradually  became 
more  attractive.  Whole  families  began  to  come  from  Eng- 
land of  their  own  accord.  The  older  settlers  built  larger 
houses  in  place  of  their  rude  huts.  They  sent  for  horses 
and  cattle.  The  plantations  increased  in  number  as  the  new- 
comers settled  along  the  river  courses.  On  the  James  they 
spread  as  far  as  the  falls  where  Richmond  is  situated. 

Rivers  the  Roads  of  Virginia.  —  The  rivers  were  the  high- 
ways connecting  one  plantation  with  another.  Roads  were 
almost  unknown.  Each  planter  had  a  wharf,  at  which  sea- 
going ships  could  unload  furniture,  tools,  cloth,  and  many 
other  things,  taking  the  planter's  crop  in  exchange.  In  such 
a  country  market-towns  were  not  needed  and  were  very  scarce. 


LIFE    IN  JAMESTOWN 


45 


Families  used   the  river  highways  in  visiting  or  going  to 
church,  being  rowed  by  their  servants  or  slaves. 

Finding  Wealth.  —  The  officers  of  the  company  expected 
to  find  the  main  profits  of  the  enterprise  in  gold  mines,  just 
as  the  Spaniards  had  been  made  rich  by  the  mines  of  Mexico 
and  Peru.  When  their  explorers  discovered  no  mines,  they 
tried  to  make  a  profit  by  sending  pitch,  tar,  and  other  naval 


How  THE  Colonists  built  their  new  lloiiEs 

supphes  to  England.     The  settlers  in  Virginia  soon  found 
something  profitable  to  grow.     This  was  tobacco. 

Raising  Tobacco.  —  At  first  the  tobacco  which  the  Indians 
raised  seemed  too  bitter,  but  John  Rolfe  learned  how  to  cure 
it  in  such  a  manner  that  it  found  a  ready  sale  in  the  London 
market.  King  James  hated  tobacco  and  tried  to  keep  his 
subjects  from  using  it.  The  governor  of  Virginia  also  thought 
that  raising  tobacco  would  take  time  from  more  useful  labor 
and  made  a  rule  that  no  farmer  should  plant  tobacco  until 
he  had  planted  two  acres  of  corn.  Still,  tobacco  fields  spread 
in  spite  of  the  law.     At  Jamestown,  in  the  spring  of  1617, 


46  THE    FOUNDING   OF   VIRGINIA 

the  market-place  and  even  the  borders  of  the  streets  were  set 
with  the  plants.  This  is  not  surprising,  for  a  single  pound 
sometimes  brought  in  London  as  much  as  $12  in  present 
money.  The  price  fell  as  more  was  raised,  but  tobacco  con- 
tinued to  be  the  chief  product  on  which  the  planters  depended 
for  profit. 

The  dried  leaves  were  so  convenient  to  handle  that  they 
became  the  money  of  the  day,  bound  together  in  pound  or 
hundred-pound  packages.  The  price  of  everything  was 
reckoned  in  pounds  of  tobacco.  The  salaries  of  pubHc  offi- 
cers and  of  clergymen,  as  well  as  all  debts,  were  also  paid 
with  it. 

The  First  Virginia  Assembly.  —  The  officers  of  the  Virginia 
Company  had  already  decided  to  rent  the  land  and  sell  it 
to  planters,  instead  of  managing  it  themselves.  Soon  they 
shared  the  government  of  the  colony  with  the  settlers.  They 
hoped  in  this  way  to  give  the  colonists  a  deeper  interest  in 
the  welfare  of  the  settlements.  They  were  at  the  same  time 
following  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  their  ancestors.  Far 
back  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  people  of  England  had  expected 
the  king  to  ask  the  advice  of  representatives  of  the  towns 
before  he  spent  money  which  the  towns  raised.  Why  should 
the  Englishmen  who  managed  the  affairs  of  the  company  be 
less  just  to  their  settlers  than  the  king  was  obliged  to  be  to 
them?  Accordingly  the  company,  in  16 19,  invited  the  chief 
settlements  each  to  choose  two  delegates  to  form  an  assembly 
or  little  ''parliament."  This  assembly  assisted  the  governor 
of  the  colony  and  his  council.  At  first  it  numbered  22  mem- 
bers, and  met  in  the  wooden  church  at  Jamestown.  It  may 
appear  like  a  small  and  unimportant  body,  but  the  Virginia 
Assembly  of  16 19  was  the  forerunner  of  every  state  legisla- 
ture of  the  present  day. 

The  English  Laws  obeyed  in  Virginia.  —  The  custom  of 
governing  themselves  by  representatives  was  not  the  only 


FIRST   VIRGINIA   ASSEMBLY 


47 


DESCRIPTION 

of  ^h(e\»  England : 
OR 

THE    OBSERVATIONS,    AND 

diTcouerieSjof  Captain  IohnSmifh(AdmiTall 

of  that  Country)  in  the  North  o^  America,  m  theyear 

of  our  Lord  1614:  with  the fucceffe  of  fixe  Shi^s, 

that  went  the  next y ear e  1 6  f  J  ;  *ndlhe 

acddentsbefell  himamongthe 

French  men  of  wane: 

With  the  proofe  of  the  prcfent  benefit  this 

Countreyaffoords:  whither  f  hi  s  prefentyeare, 

J  6 1 6 ,  eight  voluntary  Ship!  are  gone 

to  mtJ^e further  tryall. 


custom  that  the  settlers  brought  over  from  England.     The 

year  after  the  meeting  of  the  first  Virginia  Assembly,   the 

company  decided  to  select  from  the  Enghsh  laws  those  rules 

which  might  apply  to  ways  a 

of  living  in  the  colony.     A 

little    later,  the   judges   in 

Virginia   were   required    to 

promise  to  "do  justice  as 

near   as   may   be"   to    the 

way   justice   was    done    in 

England.      Trial    by    jury 

was  one  way  which  was  as 

old  as  parhament. 

Schools  and  Books. — 
Many  of  the  early  settlers 
were  educated  men  and 
were  anxious  to  have  their 
children  educated.  They 
were  at  first  obliged  to 
engage  private  teachers  or 
send  their  sons  to  English   f^,^,i^„,„/^fZZor''Rokr>cUry;M 

schools.        They     brought        are  to  be  fould  at  his  houfe  called  the  Lodge, 
11  vi-      ^1-  r  in  Chancery  lane,  oueragainft  Lin- 

books     With     them     from  colneslnne.  r6l5. 

England.      Some    of    them   Reduced  Facsimile  of  the  Title-Page 

enjoyed     reading    books     oe  a  Book  that  John  Smith  wrote 

written  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Englishman  in 
Virginia  was  much  like  the  Enghshman  who  remained  in 
England.  He  did  his  farming  differently,  and  that  was 
about  all. 

Number  of  Virginians.  —  Nearly  7,000  settlers  had  come 
at  one  time  or  another  since  1607,  but  most  of  them  had 
perished  of  hardships  and  disease.  The  Indians  surprised 
the  settlers  in  1622  and  killed  347.  In  1624  Virginia  had  a 
population  of  1,232  colonists,  including  23  negro  slaves. 


48  THE    FOUNDING    OF    VIRGINIA 

End  of  the  Virginia  Company.  —  King  James  did  not  long 
permit  the  Virginia  Company  to  manage  the  colony.  In 
1624  he  took  away  its  privileges,  expecting  to  control  the 
colony  more  directly.  Neither  he  nor  his  successors  inter- 
fered much  with  it.  He  appointed  the  governor,  but  the 
settlers  usually  managed  their  own  affairs. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Who  were  the  first  emigrants  to  Virginia?  Why  did  they  go  out  to 
settle  under  a  trading  company?     What  route  did  their  ship  follow? 

2.  What  work  did  the  early  settlers  do?  Why  did  they  suffer  so  much? 
What  did  Captain  John  Smith  do  for  them? 

3.  In  what  ways  was  life  at  Jamestown  more  like  a  lumber  camp  or  a  min- 
ing camp  than  an  ordinary  town?  What  change  in  the  company's  plans  did 
Governor  Dale  introduce? 

4.  What  was  an  indentured  servant?  Did  they  cost  more  or  less  than 
slaves?     Which  worked  for  the  planters  the  longer  —  slaves  or  servants? 

5.  What  did  the  company  do  in  order  to  introduce  family  life  more  fully 
into  its  colony? 

6.  What  use  did  the  settlers  make  of  the  rivers  in  Virginia?  What  profit- 
able crop  did  they  find? 

7.  Why  did  the  Virginia  Company  share  the  government  with  the  colo- 
nists?    How  large  was  the  colony  in  1624?     Why  had  the  colony  grown  slowly? 

8.  Why  did  King  James  deprive  the  Virginia  Company  of  its  privileges? 
Did  he  carry  out  his  plan? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Learn  about  some  one  of  the  many  state  legislatures  in  the  United  States 
—  where  it  holds  its  sessions,  how  many  members  it  has,  what  it  does — and 
then  compare  it  with  the  first  Virginia  Assembly. 

2.  Find  the  Old- World  customs  which  the  Virginians  followed  in  their  new 
country. 

Important  Dates : 

1607.   The  founding  of  Jamestown  by  the  Virginia  Company. 
1619.   The  first  Virginia  Assembly  at  Jamestown. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  EXILES  FOR  CONSCIENCE  SAKE  AT  PLYMOUTH 

The  Separatists.  —  Virginia  had  its  origin  in  the  plans  of 
a  trading  company,  and  was  in  the  main  a  business  venture. 
Quite  different  was  the  beginning  of  Plymouth  colony.  Queen 
Elizabeth  and  her  successor,  King  James,  Hke  most  people 
of  their  time  in  England  and  Europe,  thought  that  everybody 
ought  to  attend  the  religious  services  ordered  by  law.  Some 
of  their  subjects,  however,  beheved  that  they  had  a  right  to 
form  congregations  and  manage  their  rehgious  affairs  undis- 
turbed by  the  government.  This  led  to  their  being  called 
*' Independents"  or  ''Separatists."  They  disliked,  besides, 
the  manner  of  conducting  the  ordinary  services  of  the  Enghsh 
Church,  When  they  tried  to  organize  small  independent 
churches,  where  they  could  worship  in  their  own  way,  royal 
officials  hunted  them  out  and  punished  them  by  fines  and 
imprisonment.  If  after  three  months'  imprisonment  they 
refused  to  obey,  they  could  be  expelled  from  the  kingdom  and 
their  property  seized. 

Exiles  in  Holland.  —  In  1607  ^^^  1608  rather  than  run  the 
risk  of  losing  all  their  property,  as  well  as  of  being  sent  into 
exile,  many  Separatists,  especially  from  the  farming  region 
near  Lincoln  and  York,  crossed  the  North  Sea  to  the  Dutch 
cities  of  Amsterdam  and  Leyden.  They  could  worship  as 
they  chose  in  Holland,  but  they  found  that  only  by  the  sever- 
est toil,  including  the  labor  of  their  children,  could  they 
make  a  living.  They  soon  realized  that  their  children  were 
likely  to  forget  the  English  language  and  English  customs, 


so 


THE    PILGRIMS   AND    PLYMOUTH 


A  House  in  Leyden,  in  1620 


marry  into  Dutch  families,  and  perhaps  enter  the  Dutch 
army  and  navy.  Some  of  the  older  people  returned  to  Eng- 
land,   preferring   to   risk   imprisonment    rather    than  cease 

being  English.  One  con- 
gregation living  at  Leyden, 
of  which  John  Robinson 
was  the  pastor,  decided  to 
go  to  America.  They  ex- 
pected to  find  land  and  a 
chance  to  worship  as  they 
beheved.  They  were,  how- 
ever, too  poor  to  go  so  far 
without  help.  Accordingly 
they  sent  two  of  their 
number  to  London  to 
secure  money  to  carry  out  their  plan. 

The  Plan  to  emigrate  to  America.  —  Some  London  mer- 
chants were  persuaded  to  advance  £1,200,  equivalent  to 
nearly  $30,000  in  money  today,  with  which  to  hire  ships  and 
sailors  and  buy  supplies.  The  understanding  was  that  each 
subscriber  of  £10  was  to  own  a  share.  Each  of  the  Pilgrims, 
as  the  members  of  this  emigrant  band  were  called,  was  also 
to  receive  a  share.  Both  people  and  money  were  needed 
to  found  a  colony.  All  that  the  colonists  could  gain  during 
the  first  seven  years  by  labor  or  by  trade  with  the  Indians, 
except  what  was  needed  for  their  daily  support,  was  to 
belong  to  the  common  stock.  When  the  seven  years  were 
up,  this  stock  was  to  be  divided  with  the  London  merchants 
who  had  aided  them. 

The  Pilgrims.  —  Only  a  part  of  the  Pilgrim  congregation 
left  Leyden  in  the  first  expedition.  There  was  neither  room 
on  the  ship  nor  money  enough  for  all.  Robinson  remained 
in  Leyden  with  the  others,  who  needed  him  more^  William 
Brewster,   a  printer  and  writer,  and  next  to  Robinson  the 


THE    "MAYFLOWER"    AND    PLYMOUTH 


51 


leading  man  of  the  congregation,  joined  the  party  of  emi- 
grants and  became  their  pastor.  Among  them  was  Wilham 
Bradford,  a  born  leader  of  men,  and  later  the  historian  of 
the  colony.  Miles  Standish,  a  soldier  in  Holland  during  the 
recent  war  with  Spain,  also  joined  the  Pilgrims.  Two  others 
were  John  Alden  and  Priscilla  Mullins,  about  whom  the  poet 
Longfellow  has  told  a  pretty  story. 


Manor  House  at  Scrooby,  England 
William  Brewster's  Residence 

Their  Voyage.  —  The  Pilgrims  left  Holland  in  the  summer 
of  1620.  After  many  delays  in  England,  a  company  of  102 
sailed  from  Plymouth,  September  6,  in  the  ship  Mayflower. 
For  nine  weeks  the  httle  company  was  tossed  about  on  the 
rough  seas  of  the  North  Atlantic,  living  in  narrow,  unwhole- 
some quarters,  as  the  first  emigrants  to  Virginia  had  done 
thirteen  years  before. 

Choosing  a  Place  for  Settlement.  —  The  Pilgrims  had 
planned  to  settle  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Hudson  or  the  Delaware  River,  in  what  was  then  regarded 
as  the  northern  part  of  Virginia.  But  after  the  Mayflower 
passed  Cape  Cod  it  came  upon  dangerous  shoals.  The 
stormy  season  had  set  in,  and  winter  was  fast  coming  on. 
The  plan  to  go  farther  was,  therefore,  abandoned,  and  a 
site  for  a  settlement  was  sought  nearer  at  hand. 


52 


THE   PILGRIMS   AND    PLYMOUTH 


The  "Mayflower"  Compact.  —  Steps  were  also  taken  to 
ensure  orderly  government  in  the  colony  after  landing. 
The  men  held  a  meeting  in  the  cabin  of  the  Mayflower, 
chose  one  of  their  number,  John  Carver,  to  be  their  gov- 
ernor, and  signed  a  solemn  compact  or  agreement  to  submit 
to  the  laws  which  should  be  made  by  the  majority. 


Departure  of  the  Pilgrims  from  Delft  Haven 
From  a  famous  old  Dutch  painting 

Beginnings  of  Plymouth.  —  A  party  of  explorers  in  a  boat 
left  the  ship  at  Cape  Cod  and  explored  the  coast.  On  Mon- 
day, December  21,  1620,  they  landed  at  a  place  which  Captain 
John  Smith  had  already  seen.  He  had  given  the  name 
New  England  to  the  region  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Cape  Cod, 
and  the  name  Plymouth  to  the  well-sheltered  harbor  into 
which  the  Pilgrims  now  sailed.^     This  also  happened  to  be 

^  In  1 6 14  Captain  John  Smith,  having  recovered  from  his  accident  in  Vir- 
ginia, made  a  voyage  of  exploration  along  the  American  coast  from  Maine  to 
Cape  Cod,  He  wrote  a  description  of  what  he  called  New  England,  and  also 
drew  a  map  of  the  region.  He  presented  the  map  to  Prince  Charles,  then  a 
boy  of  fifteen,  who  afterward  became  King  Charles  I.  Charles  and  Smith 
changed  about  30  barbarous  Indian  names  to  familiar  English  and  Scotch 


SETTLEMENT   AT   PLYMOUTH 


53 


the  name  of  the  last  English  port  which  they  had  seen. 
They  found  a  protected  harbor,  running  brooks,  and  cleared 
land  at  Plymouth,  and  decided  to  locate  there.  Several 
days  later  the  Mayflower  came  to  anchor  in  the  harbor  and 


Captain  John  Smith's  Map  of  New  England 

the  men  began  building  the  first  houses.  Lots  were  given 
to  each  family  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  members. 
The  women  and  children  and  the  sick  remained  for  weeks 
aboard  the  ship.  Before  the  first  winter  was  over  several 
small  houses  had  been  built,  with  the  sides  of  rudely 
squared  logs  and  the  roofs  thatched  with  dry  swamp  grass. 
One  served  as  a  storehouse  for  tools  and  provisions.  Into 
the  others  the  famiHes  moved  as  soon  as  they  were  able. 


names,  mostly  places  in  which  the  young  prince  was  interested.     Accomacke 
was  changed  to  Plymouth. 


54 


THE   PILGRIMS   AND    PLYMOUTH 


Plymouth  Harbor 


The  First  Winter.  —  Prolonged  ship  life  and  exposure  in 
a  strange  climate  made  havoc  in  the  Pilgrim  colony.     When 

the  first  warm  weather  of  the 
spring  came  barely  half  the  colo- 
nists were  Hving.  Governor  Carver 
died  in  April,  1621.  Eighteen 
married  women  had  come  over  in 
the  Mayflower;  only  four  of  them 
still  lived.  The  graves  of  the  dead 
were  carefully  covered  and  planted 
with  corn  in  the  spring  in  order 
to  conceal  from  the  Indians  the 
ravages  of  disease  in  the  little 
colony 

Fear  of  the  Indians.  —  The 
Pilgrims  were  fortunately  free 
from  trouble  with  the  Indians. 
A  recent  pestilence  had  carried  off  most  of  those  of  the 
neighborhood,  and  left  their  cleared  corn  fields  ready  for  the 
settlers  to  plant.  The  settlers  were,  however,  always  on 
their  guard  against  attack.  Whether  in  the  field  or  wood, 
at  church  or  at  town  meeting,  each  had  his  gun  by  his  side. 
Their  leader  in  arms  was  Captain  Miles  Standish,  who,  hke 
Captain  John  Smith,  was  a  brave  and  skilful  soldier. 

Friendly  Indians.  —  The  colonists  were  surprised  on  a  fair 
morning  toward  the  end  of  March,  while  many  were  still 
sick,  at  the  sudden  appearance  of  a  solitary  Indian  in  their 
village.  He  advanced  boldly,  and  gave  them  the  good  old 
EngHsh  greeting  of  ''Welcome!"  He  proved  to  be  a  chief 
from  the  far-off  Maine  coast  who  was  visiting  Indians  nearby. 
His  name  was  Samoset.  He  had  learned  English  from  the 
fishing  vessels  that  annually  visited  his  region.  A  few  days 
afterward  Samoset  reappeared,  bringing  an  Indian  named 
Squanto,  the  only  survivor  of  the  tribe  that  had  formerly 


THE    COLONISTS   AND   THE    INDIANS  55 

inhabited  the  region  around  Plymouth.  Squanto  had  once 
been  captured  and  carried  to  England  and  had  learned 
English.  Samoset  and  Squanto  brought  a  chieftain  named 
Massasoit  to  visit  the  white  men.  In  this  way  the  Indians  of 
the  neighborhood  became  friendly  with  the  settlers.  Squanto 
made  his  home  with  the  Pilgrims.  He  was  their  interpre- 
ter, explaining  what  the  Indians  said,  and  telHng  the  Indians 
what  the  Pilgrims  said.  He  also  taught  them  how  to  hunt, 
and  where  to  get  fish,  and  helped  them  to  procure  corn  and 
furs  from  the  Indians.  He  showed  them  how  to  plant  corn, 
placing  a  fish  in  each  hole  in  order  to  fertiHze  the  poor  soil. 


A  Piece  of  Wampum 

A  New  Kind  of  Money.  —  In  trading  with  the  Indians  the 
colonists  learned  to  use,  in  place  of  money,  strings  of  beads 
made  from  clam-shells.  The  shells  were  first  broken  into 
small  pieces,  then  chipped  and  ground  into  a  round  form.  A 
hole  was  bored  through  the  center,  and  finally  the  polished 
beads  were  strung  together  on  fibers  of  hemp  or  on  sinews 
of  deer.  Six  white  beads,  or  three  purple  beads,  were 
counted  as  worth  a  penny. 

The  First  Thanksgiving  Day.  —  The  settlers  at  first  had  no 
horses  or  oxen  or  even  plows,  but  many  of  them  were  farmers 
and  they  were  soon  able  to  raise  corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and 
peas  enough  for  their  wants.  When  their  first  harvest  was 
gathered,  they  decided  to  set  apart  a  few  days  for  rest  and 
thanksgiving.  Four  hunters  obtained  enough  game  in  one 
day  to  supply  the  colony  for  nearly  a  week.  Massasoit 
and  his  tribe  were  asked  to  join  them  in  the  season  of  fes- 
tivity. Ninety  Indians  came  to  Plymouth.  These  native 
guests  remained  three  days.     They  contributed  five  deer  as 


56 


THE   PILGRIMS   AND    PLYMOUTH 


their  share.  The  Indians  amused  the  white  men  with  wild, 
frolicsome  games,  and  the  settlers  in  turn  entertained  them 
with  miHtary  tactics  and  evolutions.  Each  day  was  opened 
with  a  religious  service.  This  was  the  first  Thanksgiving  in 
New  England.  In  1623  the  settlers  were  made  happy  by 
a  rain  which  came  in  time  to  save  their  corn  from  drought, 
and  they  again  set  apart  a  special  day  for  Thanksgiving. 
In  this  manner  the  new  custom  of  a  Thanksgiving  time 
each  fall  grew  up. 


Copyright,  i8qi,  by  A.  S.  Burbank 

A  View  of  Plymouth  in  1622 


End  of  the  Partnership.  —  Emigrants  joined  the  Pilgrims 
during  the  following  years,  so  that  the  colony  increased  in 
numbers.  The  newcomers  were  in  part  from  John  Robin- 
son's church  in  Leyden,  and  in  part  directly  from  England. 
In  1624  some  cattle  were  brought  into  the  settlement.  In 
one  way,  however,  the  colony  did  not  seem  successful.  The 
colonists  could  find  little  except  lumber  or  beaver  skins  to 
send  to  their  partners  in  London.  In  1627  they  purchased  the 
shares  held  there,  agreeing  to  pay  the  London  merchants  in 
nine  annual  instalments.  The  Pilgrims  managed  to  keep 
their   agreement   by   establishing   posts   on    the    Kennebec 


GROWTH   OF   THE    COLONY 


57 


River,  Penobscot  Bay,  and  the  Connecticut  River,  from 
which  they  carried  on  a  trade  in  furs  with  the  more 
distant  Indians. 

Dividing  the  Land.  —  The  system  of  joint  labor  on  common 
fields  which  had  prevailed  during  the  early  years  came  to  an 
end  at  about  the  same  time.     The  better  lands  near  Plymouth 
were  divided  by  lot  among  the  settlers  in 
twenty-acre  portions.      The  poorer  land 
and    the    meadows    at    some    distance 
away  were  left  in  common    for   a  few 
years    longer.      The   domestic   animals, 
also  owned  in  common,  were  distributed. 
There  was  not  much  to  divide.     Every 
thirteen  persons  secured  a  cow  and  two 
goats  in  the  division. 

Growth  of  Plymouth. — The  people 
who  came  later  took  up  lands  lying  along 
the  coast  north  and  south  of  Plymouth 
and  sometimes  at  a  considerable  distance 
inland.  For  a  time  such  frontier  settlers 
took  part  in  the  town  meetings  at 
Plymouth  and  attended  church  there, 
but  within  a  few  years  separate  towns  were  organized  and 
new  churches  built.  An  emigrant  ship  bound  for  Virginia 
was  driven  ashore  at  Plymouth.  A  few  who  "carried 
themselves  very  orderly"  were  allowed  to  remain,  while 
the  others,  being  ''untoward  people,"  were  compelled  to  go 
on  to  Virginia.  By  1643  there  were  ten  towns  in  Plymouth 
colony,  and  a  total  population  of  3,000.  The  town  of 
Plymouth  remained  the  center  of  the  colony,  the  residence 
of  the  governor,  and  the  place  where  the  colonial  assembly 
of  delegates  from  the  other  towns  held  its  sessions. 


Plymouth  Rock 
The  monument  covers  the 
spot  on  which   tradition 
says  the  Pilgrims  landed 


58 


THE    PILGRIMS    AND    PLYMOUTH 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  did  the  Separatists  or  Independents  in  England  want  to  do?  How 
were  they  treated  when  they  tried  to  organize  their  own  churches?  Where 
did  some  of  them  go?  Why  did  they  soon  grow  discontented  in  the  new  loca- 
tion?    Where  did  they  decide  to  go? 

2.  Why  were  the  Separatists  who  came  to  America  called  Pilgrims?     How 

did  they  obtain  money  to 
pay  their  passage  and  start 
the  settlement?  Who  were 
the  leaders?  Did  all  start 
from  Holland? 

3.  Where  had  the  Pil- 
grims planned  to  settle? 
Where  did  they  decide  to 
settle?  Why  did  they  choose 
Plymouth? 

4.  What  did  the  Pilgrims 
do  the  first  winter?  How 
many  lived  till  spring?  Why 
had  they  met  with  such 
hardships  and  losses?  In 
what  ways  did  the  Indians 
aid  them? 

5.  What  is  the  origin  of 
Thanksgiving  Day? 

6.  How  did  the  Pilgrims 
finally  arrange  terms  with  their  London  partners?  Was  this  the  original  plan? 

7.   What  progress  had  the  colony  made  by  1643? 


The  "Mayflower" 
From   the   model   in    the    Smithsonian   Institute 
at  Washington 


EXERCISES 


1.  How  do  the  terms  that  the  Pilgrims  made  with  their  partners  in  London 
differ  from  those  that  the  Virginians  made  with  the  Virginia  Company? 

2.  Learn  all  you  can  about  Thanksgiving  customs.     Compare  the  mode  of 
keeping  the  day  now  with  the  first  Thanksgiving  Day. 

Important  Date : 

1620.   The  Pilgrims  begin  a  colony  at  Plymouth. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE   BEGINNINGS    OF    NEW    ENGLAND 

The  Puritans  or  Nonconformists.  —  Many  people  in  Eng- 
land sympathized  with  the  Pilgrims  in  the  desire  that  the 
church  be  "purified"  of  most  of  its  ceremonies.  For  this 
reason"  they  were  called  Puritans.  They  did  not  separate 
from  the  church,  but  often  refused  to  worship  as  the  law 
required.  In  other  words,  they  would  not  "conform,"  and 
were  also  called  "Nonconformists."  This  made  King  James 
very  angry,  and  he  threatened  to  drive  them  out  of  the 
kingdom  if  they  did  not  conform. 

King  and  Parliament.  —  The  Puritans,  and  many  other 
Englishmen,  did  not  approve  of  the  manner  in  which  King 
James  spent  the  royal  income.  Part  of  the  money  came 
from  taxes  or  dues  which  the  king  had  no  right  to  collect 
without  asking  parliament.  When  his  requests  were  laid 
before  it,  some  members  were  sure  to  complain  of  what  he 
was  doing.  He  therefore  seldom  called  parliament  together. 
King  James  died  before  the  quarrel  became  serious. 

Charles  I  tries  to  rule  without  Parliament.  —  Charles  I, 
who  became  king  in  1625,  quarrelled  with  parliament  more 
violently  than  his  father.  When  he  needed  money,  he  also 
ordered  the  sheriffs  to  collect  sums,  which  he  called  "loans," 
from  all  persons  rich  enough  to  pay.  If  they  refused  to 
pay,  the  royal  officers  threw  them  into  prison.  In  1628 
parKament  asked  Charles  to  sign  the  "Petition  of  Right," 
which  was  really  a  promise  not  to  do  any  of  these  things 
again.     When  he  did  not  keep  his  promise,  the  quarrel  grew 


6o 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    NEW   ENGLAND 


fiercer  than  ever,  and  Charles  dismissed  parliament,  resolving 
not  to  call  it  together  again. 

Puritans  begin  to  think  of  Emigration.  —  Charles  also  saw 
to  it  that  the  laws  about  worship  were  carried  out,  whether 
the  people  liked  the  laws  or  not.  The  Puritans,  accordingly, 
had  a  double  reason  to  be  discontented  with  the  way  matters 

were  going  in  England.  Many  be- 
gan to  think  of  imitating  the  Pil- 
grims and  emigrating  to  America. 
Several,  of  whom  John  Endicott 
was  the  leader,  had  already  ob- 
tained lands  north  of  the  Plymouth 
settlement,  extending  as  far  as  the 
present  boundary  of  New  Hamp- 
shire. They  had  also  formed  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  Company,  hop- 
ing to  make  profits  from  the  fish- 
eries and  fur  trade  as  well  as  to 
settle  their  lands. 

The  Massachusetts  Bay  Com- 
pany. —  In  1629,  after  Charles 
had  angrily  dismissed  parliament,  a  large  number  of  influ- 
ential Puritans  resolved  to  emigrate  to  the  lands  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  Company.  Among  them  were  some  of  the 
principal  men  in  the  company.  The  other  members  agreed 
that  those  who  went  should  control  the  company's  affairs. 
This  was  better  than  trying  to  manage  the  settlement  from 
England,  three  thousand  miles  away,  as  had  been  done  at 
first  in  the  case  of  Jamestown.  John  Winthrop  was  chosen 
governor. 

The  First  Emigration.  —  The  emigration  of  Puritans  began 
in  the  spring  of  1630.  Before  the  year  was  over  about  two 
thousand  crossed  to  the  Massachusetts  shore.  Many  were 
"country  gentlemen,''  well-to-do  landowners,  like  Winthrop, 


John  Winthrop 

After  the  original  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Senate  Chamber 


^ 

m. 

^^Gloucester 

N- 

.  Salem 

■Cov 

cord  ■    c'4'~'^r2^ton  ^rassachusetts 

'atcrtown\.^^<^Jiun 

Vu.r 

n,ry.h                  ^^Ms: 

Cod 

'■"\' 

^riymouth       P"^ 

\ 

Prw 

I'fincc 

V^  J 

\ 

BOSTON    SETTLED  6i 

who  could  pay  their  own  expenses  and  subscribe  something 
toward  the  expenses  of  the  enterprise. 

Beginnings  of  Boston.  —  The  settlers  scattered  in  small 
groups  along  the  shore  of  Massachusetts  Bay  from  Salem 
southward.  Winthrop  chose  for  his  home  land  where  Boston 
now  stands.  On  one  side  was  an  arm  of  the  bay,  on  the  other 
the  Charles  River.  Excellent 
springs  furnished  pure  water. 
Others  settled  near  Winthrop 
on  trails  worn  by  deer  or  In- 
dians along  the  wood-covered 
hills.  Boston  soon  became 
the  chief  town  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Bay   colony.     Within     ^ 

•^        .       -^  Country  about  Massachusetts 

a  year  the  colonists  had  begun  Bay 

villages  near  Salem  and  Bos- 
ton, among  them  Lynn,  Charlestown,  and  Newtowne,  after- 
wards called  Cambridge.  The  region  seemed  beautiful  to 
the  newcomers.  Winthrop  wrote  to  his  wife,  who  did  not 
leave  England  with  the  first  group,  "We  are  here  in  a  paradise. 
Though  we  have  not  beef  and  mutton,  yet  (God  be  praised) 
we  want  them  not;  our  Indian  corn  answers  for  all.  Yet 
here  is  fowl  and  fish  in  great  plenty." 

Troubles  come. — The  first  houses  were  log  huts,  the  roofs 
thatched  with  long  grasses,  and  the  chimneys  made  of  sticks 
coated  with  mud.  Unfortunately  the  colonists  arrived  too 
late  to  gain  a  harvest  the  first  season.  Their  supplies  ran 
low,  and  they  were  obliged  to  live  on  clams,  mussels,  and 
fish,  which  were  plentiful  in  the  bay.  It  looked  as  if  they 
would  have  a  starving  time,  like  the  Jamestown  settlers, 
and  Governor  Winthrop  appointed  February  22,  1631,  as  a 
fast  day.  But  the  vessel  they  had  sent  to  England  for 
supplies  arrived  in  time  to  turn  the  fast  into  a  festival  of 
thanksgiving. 


62 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    NEW   ENGLAND 


vvj 


The  First  Winter.  —  The  settlers  did  not  escape  other  hard- 
ships common  to  every  new  country.  Before  the  first  winter 
had  even  begun  200  died.  The  others  did  not  falter.  Only 
a  few  gave  up  the  struggle  and  returned  to  England.    Their 

places  were  soon  filled,  for 
King  Charles's  tyrannical 
acts  drove  hundreds  to 
emigrate  to  Massachusetts. 
Within  ten  years  the  num- 
ber  reached  fully  20,000. 
This  is  called  the  ''Great 
Emigration." 

The  Puritans  become 
"Congregationalists."  — 
The  Puritans  who  settled 
in  Massachusetts  were  as 
sure  they  were  right  as 
those  in  authority  in  Eng- 
land were  that  the  Church 
there  was  right.  Not  long 
after  the  Puritans  landed 
they  began  to  manage  their 
religious  affairs  much  like  the  Pilgrims.  They  did  not,  how- 
ever, become  Separatists  in  the  sense  that  they  thought  the 
government  should  not  meddle  in  religious  matters.  They 
only  separated  from  the  EngHsh  Church.  But  they  beheved 
firmly  that  the  settlers  should  unite  in  the  same  church  in 
Massachusetts.  Questions  which  in  England  would  be  de- 
cided by  the  bishops  or  other  clergy  were  decided  in  New 
England  by  the  meeting  or  congregation  in  each  town.  For 
this  reason  the  people  were  called  "CongregationaHsts." 
They  expected  every  one  who  wished  to  remain  in  their  towns 
to  attend  the  services  which  their  congregations  ordered.  A 
person  who  was  absent  any  Sunday  without  excuse  was  fined. 


Puritan  Costumes 


RHODE    ISLAND  63 

Roger  Williams.  —  In  1631  Roger  Williams,  a  young  Welsh 
clergyman,  who  had  been  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  England,  came  to  Massachusetts  Bay.  He  had 
an  unusually  active  mind  and  often  reached  conclusions  which 
startled  other  men  in  the  settlements,  especially  the  officers 
of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company.  For  example,  he  de- 
clared that  the  king  had  no  right  to  grant 
lands  in  America,  because  these  lands  be- 
longed to  the  Indians,  and  should  be  bought 
from  them.  In  speaking  about  the  subject 
he  treated  the  names  of  both  King  Charles 
and  King  James  with  scant  respect.  This 
alarmed  the  officers  of  the  company,  who 
feared  that  the  king  might  be  offended  and 
might  take  away  their  charter. 

Williams  an  Exile  from   Massachusetts. 
—  Williams  was  really  a  Separatist  and  tried 
for  a  time  to  Hve  at  Plymouth.     Finally  he 
became    pastor    of    the    church   at   Salem.    Roger  Williams 
There  he  taught  that  the  government  had  After   the  statue  at 

^  ...  Providence 

no  right  to  interfere  in  rehgion  and  that 
no  one  should  be  forced  to  attend  church.  In  1635  the 
officers  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony  at  Boston  decided 
to  send  him  back  to  England,  but  they  first  gave  him  ample 
time  to  settle  his  affairs  at  Salem.  Before  the  day  appointed 
for  his  departure,  he  fled  through  the  woods,  taking  refuge 
among  the  Indians  near  the  head  of  Narragansett  Bay.  He 
had  often  visited  the  Indians,  could  speak  their  language, 
and  was  looked  upon  by  them  as  a  friend. 

Beginnings  of  Rhode  Island.  —  The  Indians  gave  him  a 
hearty  welcome,  took  him  into  their  wigwams,  and  shared 
their  scanty  suppHes  of  food  with  him.  In  the  spring  a  few 
followers  from  Salem  joined  him,  and  together  they  marked 
out  the  site  for  a  new  settlement  beyond  the  territories  of 


64 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    NEW    ENGLAND 


either  Massachusetts  Bay  or  Plymouth.  They  called  it 
Providence,  believing  that  a  good  Providence  had  guided  them 
to  so  excellent  a  location.  Roger  WiUiams  paid  the  Indians 
$150  for  the  land,  which  seemed  to  the  Indians  a  great  sum. 
Other  exiles  from  Massachusetts  founded  three  more  towns, 
including  Newport,  on  Rhode  Island  in  Narragansett  Bay. 

In  1643  WilKams  went  to  England 
and  obtained  for  these  towns  the 
right  to  rule  themselves.  This 
guarded  against  the  danger  that 
the  Plymouth  or  Massachusetts 
Bay  governments  would  attempt 
to  rule  them.  Such  were  the  be- 
ginnings of  Rhode  Island. 

The  First  Emigrants  from  Mas- 
sachusetts. —  The  year  Williams 
was  expelled  from  Massachusetts, 
a  company  of  one  hundred  men, 
women,  and  children,  under  the 
leadership  of  Thomas  Hooker,  pas- 
tor of  the  church  at  Newtowne, 
left  the  colony  for  the  Connecticut  River  valley.  Why  they 
went  is  uncertain.  The  other  Massachusetts  people  were 
sorry  to  see  them  go.  The  main  reason,  probably,  was  the 
reports  which  they  heard  of  the  fertiHty  of  the  lands  in  the 
valley  of  the  Connecticut.  They  had  no  difficulty  in  selling 
their  lands  in  Newtowne  to  newcomers  from  England. 

Founding  of  Connecticut.  —  Hooker  and  his  companions 
started  on  their  journey  early  in  June,  1636.  Each  carried 
his  pack,  arms,  and  the  tools  which  he  needed.  They  drove 
with  them  a  herd  of  cattle.  Their  route  lay  through  the 
unbroken  wilderness,  with  only  a  compass  to  guide  them. 
They  camped  in  the  open  fields.  Finally  they  reached  the 
broad  valley    where    Hartford  now  stands.     Other   groups 


fU^-'  w 


ATLANTIC    OCEAX 


Country  about  Narragan 
SETT  Bay 


LOCAL    GOVERNMENTS  65 

founded  Windsor  and  Wethersfield,  and,  farther  up  the  Con- 
necticut River,  Springfield.  Springfield  remained  a  part  of 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony,  while  the  towns  farther 
south  were  united  in  a  separate  colony  called  Connecticut, 
from  the  river  which  flowed  past  them.  Within  two  years 
800  people  had  moved  to  the  Connecticut  Valley.  A  sep- 
arate colony  was  founded  at  New  Haven  by  a  group,  mainly 
from  London,  under  the  leadership  of  Theophilus  Eaton  and 
John  Davenport. 

New  Hampshire.  —  While  these  larger  settlements  were 
being  made,  others  were  begun  in  New  Hampshire  at  Dover, 
Portsmouth,  and  Exeter.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Company 
ruled  these  for  a  time,  but  afterwards  they  were  combined  by 
order  of  the  English  king  into  the  province  of  New  Hampshire. 

The  New  Englanders  govern  themselves.  —  The  New 
England  colonists,  Hke  the  Virginians,  had  already  learned 
how  to  govern  themselves.  They  brought  with  them  many 
useful  laws  and  customs.  In  the  Massachusetts  Bay  settle- 
ments they  also  took  rules  from  the  Bible  and  treated  them 
as  laws.  The  people  of  New  Haven  went  further,  pledging 
one  another  to  live  according  to  the  laws  set  forth  in  the  Old 
Testament.  At  first  they  did  not  allow  trial  by  jury  because 
they  found  no  mention  of  it  in  the  Bible.  If  new  laws  were 
needed,  these  were  talked  about  and  decided  upon  in  assemblies 
representing  the  citizens.  There  were  also  meetings  of  all 
the  citizens  of  each  town  to  consider  its  special  business. 

Who  were  Voters  in  Massachusetts.  —  According  to  the 
charter  of  the  company  which  founded  the  colony,  the  mem- 
bers or  freemen  of  the  company  were  to  manage  its  affairs. 
By  the  end  of  the  first  year  there  were  2,000  persons  in  the 
colony,  but  only  12  freemen  or  members.  The  other  men 
did  not  Uke  to  be  ruled  by  a  few,  and  soon  109  asked  to  be 
admitted  as  freemen.  Fearing  that  they  would  leave  the 
settlements  if  their  request  was  not  granted,  the  leaders  con- 


66  THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   NEW   ENGLAND 

eluded  to  admit  them,  but  decided  at  the  same  time  that  only 
church  members  could  become  freemen.  Consequently  in 
Massachusetts  for  many  years  it  was  necessary  to  be  a  church 
member  in  order  to  vote.  This  was  just  as  much  a  union  of 
church  and  state  as  existed  in  England,  except  that  the  church 
differed  from  the  one  ordered  by  the  English  law,  and  the 
state  was  really  a  little  republic  and  not  a  kingdom. 

A  General  Assembly.  —  After  a  while  there  were  so  many 
freemen  in  Massachusetts  that  they  could  not  attend  a  gen- 
eral meeting  of  the  colony.  Besides,  some  lived  too  far  away. 
They  therefore  used  the  plan  of  representation  which  their 
English  forefathers  had  invented  long  before,  and  which  the 
Virginians  began  to  use  in  1619.  Within  a  few  years  they 
also  began  to  vote  by  ballot  for  the  governor  and  for  the  rep- 
resentatives or  deputies  to  the  assembly  or  ''General  Court." 

The  New  England  Confederation.  —  Each  of  these  colo- 
nies—  Plymouth,  Massachusetts  Bay,  Connecticut,  and  New 
Haven — managed  its  affairs  separately.  Fear  of  the  Indians 
and  of  the  Dutch  settlers  in  the  Hudson  Valley,  led  in 
1643  to  a  union  for  common  defense.  They  called  their 
league  ''The  United  Colonies  of  New  England."  Eight 
commissioners,  two  from  each  colony,  were  given  charge  of 
matters  of  common  interest,  such  as  war  with  Indian  tribes. 
The  Rhode  Islanders  wished  to  join  the  league,  but  the  other 
colonies  would  not  admit  them.  Brewster  of  Plymouth  said, 
''  Concerning  the  Rhode  Islanders,  we  have  no  conversation 
with  them  further  than  necessity  or  humanity  may  require." 

The  league  lasted  forty  years.  The  only  serious  Indian 
war  which  it  managed  took  place  in  1675  and  1676.  King 
Philip  was  chief  of  one  of  the  tribes,  and  so  the  struggle  was 
called  King  Philip's  War.  The  Indians  fell  upon  a  dozen 
frontier  villages,  burning  the  houses  and  killing  the  inhab- 
itants. As  soon  as  the  soldiers  of  the  league  were  assembled, 
the  savages  were  defeated.     The  captives  were  sold  as  slaves. 


EDUCATION   IN   NEW   ENGLAND  67 

King  Philip  was  killed,  and  his  followers  were  scattered. 
A  short  time  after  the  league  came  to  an  end  Plymouth 
colony  was  united  with  Massachusetts  Bay.  New  Haven  had 
been  joined  with  Connecticut  in  1664. 


^ 


Salem 
S      L,x-hii/ton   '  J:,t  r^ynn~  Massachusetts 
T,\'atcrfou"n^^      '■;V,oston  IGSO 

'Roxhury:>Pqnchester       Bay 

.   y    ■  Jjuxuury  z-^t 

\        Q'  ^  '<-  '■■■■■^^Plyr>iouihy>\  Cape  Cod^ 
'     ■  r    ^  V  \  -V^'   7C20O/:;-;^       Bay      ' 

■,.,.,,hr,rr        -.     ■  ;      q-  .       .    '    -^  | 

^'^'''"^'^' '''S-^fv^i^NTUCKET 


V 


New  England  in  the  Seventeenth  Century 

Education  in  Massachusetts.  —  Several  of  the  leading  men 
in  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony  had  been  educated  in  the 
English  universities,  especially  at  Cambridge.  They  expected 
their  pastors  to  explain  the  Bible  to  the  people,  and  thought 
that  they  could  not  discover  the  true  meaning  unless  they 
could  read  it  in  the  language  in  which  it  was  written — the 
Old  Testament  in  Hebrew  and  the  New  Testament  in  Greek. 
Besides,  like  many  others  in  England  and  Europe,  these 
Massachusetts  leaders  wished  educated  men  to  read  Latin, 
the  language  of  the  ancient  Romans.    Brewster  of  Plymouth 


68 


THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    NEW   ENGLAND 


had  a  library  of  about  400  books,  62  of  which  were  in  Latin. 
Bradford  could  read  not  only  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  but 
also  French  and  Dutch,  It  was  not  surprising,  therefore,  that 
among  the  first  things  the  colonists  cared  for  were  schools  and 
a  college.    In  1647  they  decided  that  every  town  with  50  fam- 

ihes    should    support 

T//;jtf  euts  down  an 
Both  great  and  fmail; 


a  teacher.  If  a  town 
had  100  families,  it 
should  provide  for 
what  would  now  be 
called  a  high  school. 
The  Massachusetts 
assembly  gave  1,000 
acres  of  land  to  each 
of  the  chief  towns  for 
the  support  of  these 
schools. 

Harvard  College 
founded.  —  Six  years 
after  John  Winthrop 
and  his  companions 
landed  on  the  shores 
of  Massachusetts,  the 
General  Court  voted 
to  use  part  of  the 
money  which  it  col- 
lected from  the  settlers  to  found  a  college  at  Newtowne. 
John  Harvard,  one  of  the  clergymen  of  the  colony,  dying  two 
years  later,  left  all  his  books  and  half  his  property  to  the 
college.  The  college  was  named  for  him,  and  the  name  of 
the  town  was  changed  to  Cambridge  in  memory  of  the  older 
university  town  of  England.  Famihes  in  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut  were  asked  to  give  a  quarter  of  a  bushel  of  corn 
every  year  for  the  college. 


Made  Bavid  feck  Ms 
Life. 

Wjahf  in  tlie  Sea 
God^s  Voice  obey. 


Xerxes  the  great  did 

die, 
And  fo  roult  you  &  h 

Touib  forward  flips 
Death  fooneil  'oips. 

Zacbeus  he 

Cid  climb  tfic  Tree 

Hrt  Lord  to  fee. 


Facsimile  of  a  Page  from  the  "New 
England  Primer" 


AFFAIRS    IN   ENGLAND  69 

Education  at  New  Haven.  —  The  founders  of  New  Haven 
also  planned  for  a  college,  but  at  first  they  could  spare  no 
money.  They  had  brought  a  teacher  with  them,  so  that  a 
school  was  begun  at  once.  Finally  one  of  their  number, 
Edward  Hopkins,  who  had  returned  to  England,  bequeathed 
some  money  to  the  colony  for  the  college.  The  best  they 
could  do  even  then  was  to  open  what  was  called  the  Hopkins 
Grammar  School,  in  which  Latin  and  Greek,  as  well  as  read- 
ing, writing,  and  arithmetic  were  taught. 

Parliament  and  King  Charles.  —  The  "Great  Emigration" 
to  Massachusetts  came  to  an  end  in  1641.  For  nearly  twenty 
years  after  that  time  the  Puritans  had  the  upper  hand  in 
England  and  felt  little  desire  to  emigrate  to  America.  They 
gained  the  advantage  in  this  way.  King  Charles  attempted 
to  force  the  Scotch  to  worship  in  the  manner  ordered  in  Eng- 
land. The  Scotch  rose  in  rebellion,  and  Charles  was  obliged 
to  call  parKament  together  to  obtain  money  to  pay  his  sol- 
diers. The  members,  instead  of  voting  the  money,  complained 
of  their  grievances.  He  dismissed  this  "Short"  ParKament, 
but  soon  called  another  which  refused  to  be  treated  in  the 
same  way.  It  was  nicknamed  the  "Long"  ParKament, 
because  it  lasted  almost  twenty  years. 

Civil  War  in  England.  —  In  1642  Charles  and  parliament 
quarrelled  so  violently  that  both  raised  armies  and  began 
a  civil  war.  The  members  of  the  king's  party  were  called 
CavaKers,  because  many  of  them  were  nobles  or  "country 
gentlemen."  The  Puritans  were  nicknamed  "Roundheads," 
because  some  of  them  cropped  their  hair  close.  The  king 
was  defeated  and  captured,  and  the  government  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  victorious  Puritan  army  under  the  leadership  of 
Oliver  Cromwell.  When  the  king  stirred  up  civil  war  again, 
he  was  tried,  condemned,  and  executed. 

The  Commonwealth.  —  Oliver  Cromwell  now  became  real 
ruler  of  England.     The  government  was  called  a  Common- 


70  THE   BEGINNINGS    OF   NEW   ENGLAND 

wealth  and  lasted  until  two  years  after  Cromwell's  death  in 
1658,  when  Charles  II,  son  of  the  dead  king,  was  called  from 
exile  to  the  throne. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Who  had  formed  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company?  What  was  the  com- 
pany planning  to  do?     Why  did  the  Puritans  wish  to  leave  England? 

2.  What  arrangement  did  the  members  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company 
make  for  those  who  went  to  America? 

3.  Who  was  the  first  governor  of  the  Massachusetts  settlement?  Where 
did  the  Puritans  make  the  first  settlements? 

4.  Why  did  the  settlers  escape  starving  times  like  those  in  Virginia?  Did 
they  escape  the  other  hardships  of  a  new  country? 

5.  How  did  the  Puritans  in  Massachusetts  come  to  think  religious  affairs 
should  be  managed?  What  name  did  they  receive?  Why  this  name?  How 
did  they  differ  from  the  Pilgrims  in  their  ideas  of  church  government? 

6.  What  did  Roger  Williams  teach?  Why  did  these  teachings  alarm  the 
Puritans  in  Massachusetts?  Where  did  he  and  other  exiles  start  a  colony? 
What  rights  did  they  secure  from  England? 

7.  Where  did  Thomas  Hooker  and  his  congregation  first  settle?  Why  did 
they  leave  Massachusetts?  Where  did  they  form  a  new  colony?  What  other 
settlements  were  made  near  the  Connecticut  towns? 

8.  Where  did  the  New  England  colonists  get  their  laws  and  customs? 
Why  did  the  people  of  New  Haven  oppose  trial  by  jury?  How  were  new  laws 
made? 

9.  Why  did  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company  permit  men  who  were  not 
freemen  or  members  to  vote?     Whom  did  they  allow  to  become  voters? 

10.  Why  was  a  New  England  Confederation  formed?  What  colonies  com- 
posed it?  What  became  of  Plymouth  and  New  Haven  colonies?  What  useful 
work  for  New  England  did  the  Confederation  accomplish? 

11.  Why  were  the  Puritans  of  New  England  especially  interested  in  edu- 
cation? What  rule  about  schools  did  Massachusetts  lay  down  for  towns? 
Tell  the  story  of  the  founding  of  Harvard  College  and  the  Hopkins  Grammar 
School. 

12.  Why  did  the  Puritan  or  "Great  Emigration"  come  to  an  end  about 
1641? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Find  out  what  the  constitution  of  your  state  and  of  the  United  States 
says  about  religion.  Did  any  of  the  Puritan  leaders  hold  the  views  which 
governments  today  maintain  on  this  subject? 

2.  Find  on  the  map,  page  67,  the  location  of  the  early  settlements  in  New 
England,  and  tell  why  each  was  made  and  from  where  the  settlers  came. 


CHAPTER  VII 

MARYLAND,    A    REFUGE    FOR    ENGLISH    CATHOLICS 


Roman  Catholics  in  England.  —  The  English  Roman  Cath- 
olics were  treated  even  more  harshly  than  either  the  Sepa- 
ratists or  the  Puritans.  Not  only  were  they  forced  to  pay 
heavy  fines,  but  any  priest  who 
celebrated  mass  was  threat- 
ened with  death.  Neverthe- 
less, influential  CathoKcs  were 
befriended  by  both  James  I 
and  Charles  I.  Charles  mar- 
ried a  Catholic  princess,  Henri- 
etta Maria,  daughter  of  the 
famous  Henry  of  Navarre,  the 
first  Bourbon  king  of  France. 

Lord  Baltimore.  —  One  of 
the  influential  Catholics  whom 
King  Charles  chose  to  favor 
was  Sir  George  Calvert,  usually 
known  by  his  title  of  Lord  Baltimore.  To  him  the  king 
in  1632  gave  12,000  square  miles  of  land  on  both  sides  of 
Chesapeake  Bay.  Baltimore  was  to  pay  the  king  one-fifth  of 
the  gold  and  silver  which  he  mined,  and  was  to  send  him 
every  year  two  Indian  arrows  in  proof  of  loyalty.  The  region 
was  named  ''Mary  Land"  in  honor  of  the  queen. 

Maryland.  —  Lord  Baltimore  expected  to  make  Maryland 
a  great  family  estate,  but  he  also  wished  to  use  it  as  a  refuge 


Sir  George  Calvert,  Lord 
Baltimore 


72  MARYLAND 

for  persecuted  Catholics.  Although  he  died  before  carrying 
out  his  plan,  his  son  Cecil,  the  second  Lord  Baltimore,  put 
it  into'  effect.  He  equipped  an  expedition  at  an  expense  of 
£40,000,  equal  to  a  million  dollars  now,  placing  it  under  the 
leadership  of  his  younger  brother  Leonard.  The  first  party 
of  emigrants  was  made  up  of  about  20  country  gentlemen, 
most  of  them  Catholics,  and  about  200  artisans  and  laborers, 
chiefly  Protestants.  Two  Jesuit  priests  joined  the  expedition 
as  it  passed  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

The  First  Settlement.  —  The  ships  were  three  months  on 
the  voyage,  as  they  followed  the  older  route  through  the 
West  Indies.  They  reached  Maryland  in  the  early  spring  of 
1634.  Calvert  chose  as  a  site  for  his  first  settlement  a  long 
bluff  near  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac  River.  The  Indians 
who  occupied  it  were  glad  to  share  even  their  huts  and  their 
half-planted  corn  fields  with  the  well-armed  white  men  who 
might  defend  them  from  the  fierce  Susquehannocks  Hving 
farther  north.  They  received  in  payment  axes,  hoes,  knives, 
and  some  cloth.  After  the  harvest  they  agreed  to  give  the 
settlers  all  the  village  and  the  land  about  it.  One  of  the 
priests.  Father  White,  took  possession  of  an  Indian  cabin,  and, 
^'having  dressed  it  a  little  better,"  used  it  as  a  chapel. 

A  few  of  the  Indian  families  remained  during  the  first  year, 
the  men  teaching  the  settlers  to  hunt  deer,  partridges,  and 
turkeys".  The  Indian  squaws  taught  the  white  women  how  to 
prepare  hominy  and  johnny-cake  before  an  open  fire. 

A  Fortunate  Colony.  —  The  first  settlement  in  Maryland 
was  named  St.  Mary's  for  the  Virgin  Mary.  A  stockade  was 
built  around  the  little  fort  which  protected  the  town  from 
attack.  St.  Mary's  was  more  fortunate  in  its  beginnings 
than  either  Jamestown  or  Plymouth.  The  chmate  was  mild 
and  healthful,  and  the  first  harvest  was  good.  The  Indian 
neighbors  were  gentle  and  friendly.  The  colonists  at  the  end 
of  the  first  season  sent  corn  to  New  England  in  exchange 


THE    FIRST    SETTLEMENT 


73 


for  salt  fish  and  other  things  which  they  needed.  They  also 
began  to  trade  with  the  Virginians,  obtaining  cattle,  sheep, 
hogs,  and  hens,  with  which  to  stock  their  farms. 

Maryland  and  Virginia.  —  Their  deahngs  with  the  Vir- 
ginians were  not  all  friendly.  The  lands  which  King  Charles 
had  given  Lord 
Baltimore  were 
originally  a  part 
of  Virginia,  and 
the  Virginians 
objected  to  the 
loss.  Indeed 
some  Virginians 
under  the  lead- 
ership of  Wil- 
liam Claiborne 
had  already  set- 
tled    on     Kent 

Island  in  Chesapeake  Bay  and  were  carrying  on  a  profitable 
trade  with  the  Indians.  They  soon  quarrelled  with  the 
settlers  at  St.  Mary's,  and  a  petty  warfare  was  kept  up  for 
years,  until  the  king  decided  in  favor  of  Lord  Baltimore. 

A  "Proprietary"  Colony.  — Lord  Baltimore  was  the  "Pro- 
prietor" or  owner  of  Maryland.  The  country,  therefore, 
formed  a  huge  private  estate,  with  the  colonists  as  tenants. 
The  proprietor  exercised  the  rights  of  government  over  the 
colonists,  much  as  if  he  were  king.  For  this  reason  such 
a  colony  was  called  "Proprietary,"  just  as  Virginia  was  a 
"Royal"  colony,  and  Massachusetts  Bay  a  "Charter"  colony. 
In  Maryland  the  proprietor  appointed  the  governor.  He 
gave  the  settlers  lands  on  easy  terms,  collecting  one  shilling 
rent  for  each  fifty  acres.  Plantations  of  a  thousand  acres 
or  more  were  called  manors.  A  colonist  who  held  a  manor 
enjoyed  certain  powers  exercised  by  nobles  in  England,  act- 


Early  Settlements  in  Maryland 


74  MARYLAND 

ing  as  judge  in  case  of  disputes  between  his  tenants,  and 
punishing  their  offenses. 

A  Representative  Assembly.  —  Lord  Baltimore  had  prom- 
ised to  ask  the  opinions  of  his  colonists  in  making  laws,  and 
by  his  orders  an  assembly  met  in  1635.  The  laws  which  were 
framed  were  sent  to  England  for  his  approval.  With  the 
governor's  consent  they  could  be  carried  out  without  waiting 
for  the  answer,  although  the  proprietor  always  kept  the  right 
to  veto  or  forbid  laws.  The  earher  assembhes  included  all 
the  freemen  of  the  colony,  while  the  later  ones,  as  the  settle- 
ments increased  in  number,  were  made  up  of  representatives, 
like  the  assemblies  of  Virginia  and  Massachusetts. 

Religious  Toleration. — Lord  Baltimore  sent  Protestants  as 
well  as  Catholics  to  Maryland.  It  was  his  wish  that  both 
should  dwell  together  in  peace.  He  gave  strict  orders  to  his 
governors  and  to  the  priests  not  to  offend  the  Protestants. 
For  a  long  time,  however,  the  officers,  as  well  as  the  clergy, 
were  all  CathoKcs. 

In  1649  Lord  Baltimore's  policy  of  religious  toleration  was 
embodied  in  a  law,  by  vote  of  the  assembly  and  assent  of  the 
proprietor.  This  was  the  well-known  Toleration  Act,  which 
declared  'Hhat  no  person  or  persons  whatsoever  within  this 
province,  professing  to  believe  in  Jesus  Christ,  shall  from 
henceforth  be  any  ways  troubled  ...  or  molested  ...  in 
respect  to  his  or  her  religion."  Lord  Baltimore  did  not 
separate  the  church  from  the  state,  as  did  Roger  Williams 
in  Rhode  Island,  for  in  Maryland  the  government  supported 
either  Catholic  or  Protestant  worship,  sometimes  both. 

How  the  Colony  first  looked.  —  Many  Puritans  who  had 
settled  in  Virginia,  but  who  were  not  well  treated,  moved 
into  Maryland  after  the  Toleration  Act.  Some  of  them 
founded  Annapolis,  a  town  which  later  became  the  capital 
of  the  colony.  Most  of  the  people  were  scattered  along  the 
coasts  or  inland  upon  manors,  plantations,  and  farms.     St. 


BALTIMORE 


75 


Mary's  was  little  more  than  thirty  farm  houses  straggling  for 
five  miles  along  the  banks  of  the  St.  Mary's  River.  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  with  its  many  coves,  inlets,  and  rivers,  served  in 
place  of  roads.  Ships,  as  in  Virginia,  came  to  the  wharves 
of  the  farmers  and  exchanged  English  wares  for  tobacco  and 


Baltimore  in  1752 
After  an  engraving  in  Scharf's  History  of  Baltimore 

corn.  Nearly  a  century  passed  before  a  town  was  founded 
at  the  head  of  the  bay  and  named  Baltimore  in  honor  of  the 
proprietor. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  were  Roman  Catholics  treated  in  England? 

2.  What  territory  in  America  did  Lord  Baltimore  obtain?  What  did  he 
wish  to  do  with  this?     What  kind  of  emigrants  did  he  obtain? 

3.  How  long  did  it  take  to  make  the  voyage?     Why  did  it  take  so  long? 

4.  Where  did  Lord  Baltimore's  colonists  settle?  What  bargain  did  they 
make  with  the  Indians?  In  what  ways  did  the  Indians  help  them?  Why 
was  St.  Mary's  a  fortunate  colony? 

5.  What  relation  existed  between  the  Proprietor  of  Maryland  and  the 
colonists?     What  privileges  did  the  colonists  enjoy? 

6.  What  rights  over  his  tenants  did  the  holder  of  a  manor  have?  What 
class  in  Europe  did  he  somewhat  resemble? 

7.  How  did  Lord  Baltimore  manage  to  keep  religious  peace  in  his  colony? 
How  did  his  method  differ  from  the  one  Roger  Williams  put  into  practice  in 
Rhode  Island? 


76 


REVIEW 


REVIEW 

1.  The  voyages  of  the  three  great  discoverers — Diaz,  Columbus,  and 
Magellan. 

2.  The  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Cortes  and  of  Peru  by  Pizarro. 

3.  The  exploration  of  North  America  by  De  Soto  and  Coronado.     The  dis- 
covery of  the  Mississippi  by  De  Soto  and  of  the  St.  Lawrence  by  Cartier. 

4.  The  Spanish   settlements  in  the  New   World,  especially  St.  Augustine 
in  Florida. 

5.  The  first  settlements  of  each  of  the  rivals  in  North  America. 

6.  The  barriers  keeping  English  and  Dutch  explorers  from  the  interior  of 
North  America. 

7.  The  French  explorers  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  Valley  — 
Champlain,  Marquette,  and  La  Salle. 

8.  The  settlement  at  Jamestown.     The  first  work  of  a  trading  company 
and  its  laborers. 

9.  Virginia's  growth  into  a  prosperous  colony.     Finding  new  laborers. 

10.  English  laws  and  customs  carried  to  Virginia. 

11.  The  Separatists  become  exiles.     Their  settlement  at  Plymouth. 

12.  The  treatment  of  the  Puritans  in  England. 

13.  The  plan  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company  in  America. 

14.  The  first  Great  Emigration,  1630-1641. 

15.  Exiles  fr3ni  Massachusetts  found  Rhode  Island. 

16.  Emigrants  from  Massachusetts  found  Connecticut. 

17.  The  governments  of  New  England  —  town,  colony,  and  confederation. 

18.  The  provisions  made  for  education  in  the  colonies. 

19.  Lord  Baltimore's  colony  of  Maryland. 

20.  How  Lord  Baltimore  managed  the  religion  of  his  colony. 


A  Maryland  Shilling 


CHAPTER  VIII 

DUTCH   AND   ENGLISH   RIVALRIES:     BEGINNINGS    OF   A 
GREAT    STATE 

Rivalries  and  Conquests.  —  Spaniards,  Frenchmen,  and 
Dutchmen  were  among  the  discoverers  and  explorers  of  what 
is  now  the  United  States.  These  rivals  of  the  Enghsh  also 
began  settlements  within  the  regions  which  they  explored. 
As  the  English  settlements  grew  and  spread,  Spanish, 
French,  and  Dutch  settlements  were  in  danger  of  being 
attacked  and  captured  by  the  English.  The  United  States, 
like  most  European  countries,  was  to  be  built  up  in  part 
by  conquest.  The  Dutch  were  the  first  to  suffer  from  this 
growth,  or  expansion,  of  the  English  settlements,  and  by 
1664  had  lost  all  that  they  claimed  from  Henry  Hudson's 
discoveries. 

The  Dutch  and  the  English  in  the  East.  —  The  Dutch  and 
the  English  first  came  into  conflict  in  the  East  Indies,  where 
the  agents  of  the  English  and  the  Dutch  East  India  Companies 
struggled  to  gain  the  rich  trade  of  India,  China,  and  the  Spice 
Islands.  The  Dutch  drove  the  English  away  from  the  Spice 
Islands,  massacring  some  of  them  at  Amboyna  in  1623.  The 
English  never  forgot  the  deed,  but  did  nothing  against  the 
Dutch  until  their  troubles  with  King  Charles  were  ended. 

Founding  New  Amsterdam.  —  Henry  Hudson  had  discov- 
ered the  river  which  bears  his  name  in  1609.  He  carried 
word  to  his  employers,  the  merchants  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company,  that  the  Indians  were  ready  to  exchange  valuable 
furs  for  knives,  hatchets,  beads,  and  similar  cheap  articles. 


78 


DUTCH   AND    ENGLISH   RIVALRIES 


Although  the  East  India  Company  took  no  great  interest  in 
the  matter,  merchants  sent  vessels  over  to  the  Hudson  to 
trade  with  the  Indians.  In  162 1  a  Dutch  West  India  Com- 
pany was  formed,  mainly  to  plunder  the  Spaniards  on  the  sea 
or  in  the  West  Indies,  for  the  Dutch  were  again  at  war  with 
Spain.  ^  This  company  received  the  sole  right  to  the  lands 
about  the  Hudson.  Its  agents  built  a  trading  post  at  the 
lower  end  of  Manhattan  Island,  which  soon  became  known  as 
New  Amsterdam,  being  named  for  the  largest  city  in  Holland. 
They  estabhshed  another  post  on  the  site  of  Albany,  and 
called  it  Fort  Orange.  The  whole  colony  was  called  New 
Netherland.  Peter  Minuit,  who  was  sent  over  as  governor  of 
the  colony,  bought  Manhattan  Island 
from  the  Indians  for  about  $24  worth 
of  cloth,  hatchets,  kettles,  knives,  and 
other  things.  This  seems  a  small  price 
for  the  land  on  which  New  York  City 
stands,  but  the  Indians  were  well 
pleased  with  the  bargain. 

New  Amsterdam,  like  Jamestown  at 
first,  was  the  station  or  colony  of  a 
trading  company  rather  than  a  real 
settlement.  A  few  families  arrived  in 
1623,  and  others  followed  year  by  year. 
Most  of  their  members  were  employed 
by  the  company  or  rented  farms,  or 
^'boweries,"  from  it.  Even  the  clergy- 
man who  "comforted  the  sick"  and 
preached  on  Sunday  was  paid  by  the  company. 

Patroons.  —  Certain  members  of  the  West  India  Company 

were  anxious  that  the  settlement  of  their  lands  should  go 

forward  faster.     It  was  accordingly  agreed  in  1629  that  any 

member  who  should  found  a  settlement  of  fifty  adults  within 

^See  Introductory  American  History,  pages  210,  226. 


Dutch  Patroon  or 
Landed  Proprietor 


NEW   AMSTERDAM 


79 


^ 


c^ 


four  years  might  have  a  tract  extending  sixteen  miles  along 

the  Hudson  River,  or  eight  miles,  if  it  lay  on  both   sides. 

No  Hmits  were  set  showing  how  far  back  these  tracts  should 

run.     If  the  founder  of  the  settlements,  who  was  called  a 

patroon  or  lord,  should  send  out  more  colonists,  he  could 

have  more  land.     The  colonists  were  farm  laborers  or  renters 

on  the  patroon's  land.     They  could  not  hunt  or  fish  without 

his   consent. 

They      must 

grind     their 

grain    at    his 

mill   and   buy 

their    cloth    at 

the  company's 

storehouse,   for 

they  were  not 

allowed       to 

weave.      They 

were  forbidden 

to    trade   with 

the  Indians,  though  most  of  the  early  colonists  soon  obtained 

the  permission  of  the  patroon,  and  turned  fur  traders. 

Such  a  plan  was  not  likely  to  succeed,  especially  when  colo- 
nists might  obtain  land  on  better  terms  from  the  Enghsh. 
The  most  successful  patroonship,  or  manor,  was  founded  by 
Van  Rensselaer,  and  included  a  region  equal  to  two  modern 
counties  around  Fort  Orange.  The  settlement  soon  con- 
sisted of  twenty-five  or  thirty  houses  scattered  along  the 
Hudson.     It  was  called  Rensselaerwyck. 

The  Dutch  and  the  Indians.  —  The  Dutch  settlers,  like  the 
company  which  sent  them  from  Europe,  were  interested  chiefly 
in  trade,  and  especially  the  fur  trade.  If  all  had  been  con- 
tent with  that,  their  relations  with  the  Indians  would  have 
remained  friendly,  because  they  would  not  have  desired  to 


Ancient  Van  Rensselaer  Mansion 
At  Greenbush,  near  Albany,  N.  Y. 


8o 


DUTCH   AND    ENGLISH   RIVALRIES 


occupy  any  of  the  Indian  hunting  grounds.  But  as  soon  as 
the  good  farm  lands  on  Manhattan  Island  were  taken,  and  the 
settlers  sought  more  land  east  and  west  of  the  Hudson,  the 
Indians  were  alarmed  and  angry.  Both  settlers  and  savages 
were  guilty  of  murders.  The  Indians  were  made  more  reck- 
less by  the  liquor, 
or  ''firewater,'^ 
which  they  bought 
of  the  traders. 
The  consequence 
was  that  for  years 
war  raged  between 
the  settlers  and 
the  Indians,  and 
that  the  Dutch 
held  Httle  but  Fort 
Amsterdam  on 
Manhattan  Island. 
A  wall  of  earth,, 
four  or  five  feet 
high,  thrown  up  inside  a  closely-set  row  of  pointed  stakes 
twice  as  high,  was  built  across  the  island  north  of  the 
fields  near  the  fort.  This  palisade  formed  some  protection 
against  an  attack  from  the  Indians,  and  later  gave  its  name 
to  Wall  Street. 

New  Settlements.  —  In  1646  peace  was  made  with  the 
Indians  and  the  settlements  began  to  spread  once  more. 
Weehawken  and  Hoboken  were  two  of  those  on  the  west  shore 
of  the  Hudson.  Among  the  villages  across  the  East  River 
on  Long  Island  was  Breuckelen,  or  Brooklyn.  The  Dutch 
were  not  the  only  ones  to  emigrate  to  the  company's  terri- 
tories. So  many  English  and  French  came  that  the  decisions 
of  the  company's  officers  were  published  in  those  languages 
as  well  as  in  Dutch. 


Wall  Street  Palisade  from  the  East  River 


NEW    SETTLEMENTS 


8i 


Beyond  the  Delaware,  where  the  Dutch  had  trading  posts, 
the  Swedes  attempted  in  1638  to  found  a  colony.  They 
too  had  a  West  India  Company,  and  like  the  Dutch  were 
mainly  interested  in  the  fur  trade.  The  Dutch  regarded 
the  Swedes  as  intruders  and  in  1655  took  possession  of 
their  settlements. 


.  Schenectady 

\  Albany 


N  E  W 

Fort     (rOU,l     Hop.    .  ^      ^ 

N  e't'h  e'r  LAN  dViX'- 


o  a^ 


Trading    Stations.  — 

As  the  Dutch  were  in- 
terested chiefly  in  the 
fur  trade,  and  as  rivers 
offered  the  only  routes 
for  transporting  furs, 
the  Dutch  tried  to  take 
possession  of  important 
points  along  the  rivers. 
They  had  Fort  Orange 
at  the  head  of  the 
deeper  waters  of  the 
Hudson,  and,  somewhat 
later,  pushed  up  the 
Mohawk  River  to  the 
rapids,  where  Schenec- 
tady stands,  and  built 
another  post.  They  also  built  a  fort  at  the  junction  of  the 
Schuylkill  and  the  Delaware  near  the  site  of  Philadelphia. 
They  had  built  Fort  Good  Hope  on  the  site  of  Hartford 
before  Thomas  Hooker  and  his  followers  arrived. 

The  English  Closing  In.  —  The  presence  of  the  Dutch 
on  the  Connecticut  injured  the  fur  trade  of  the  Plymouth 
colony,  because  the  fur-bearing  animals  of  the  region  near  the 
coast  were  soon  captured  and  it  was  necessary  to  go  deeper 
into  the  woods  for  others.  Even  before  the  Newtowne  con- 
gregation founded  Hartford,  the  son  of  Governor  Winthrop 
of  Massachusetts  Bay  seized  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut 


NEW  NETHERLAND 
IN  1655 

According  to  the  Dutch 


82  DUTCH   AND    ENGLISH   RIVALRIES 

and  thus  prevented  the  Dutch  from  using  it  as  a  trade  route. 
Still  worse  for  the  Dutch  was  the  settlement  of  Springfield, 
which  had  been  the  meeting  place  of  their  traders  and  the 
Indians  for  ten  years.  Meanwhile  EngHsh  settlements  were 
approaching  New  Amsterdam  along  Long  Island  Sound,  and 
were  within  twenty-five  miles  of  it  by  1639.  The  Enghsh 
were  also  threatening  the  Dutch  from  the  south.  By  1631 
Claiborne  was  pushing  up  the  Susquehanna  from  Kent 
Island,  in  order  to  reach  the  sources  of  the  supply  of  furs 
west  of  where  the  Dutch  went  to  obtain  them. 

Causes  of  War  with  the  Dutch.  —  The  troubles  between 
the  Dutch  and  the  English  came  to  a  head  when  the  Nether- 
lands and  England  went  to  war  about  the  rights  of  trade  on 
the  ocean.  Most  of  the  ocean  freight  business  was  at  that 
time  in  the  hands  of  Dutch  shipowners.  The  English  par- 
Hament  tried  to  give  EngHsh  ships  a  better  chance  by  passing 
a  law  that  goods  from  other  countries  should  be  brought  to 
England  in  English  ships  if  not  in  the  ships  of  the  country 
sending  them.  This  law,  called  a  Navigation  Act,  further 
said  that  goods  not  produced  in  Europe,  that  is,  goods  from 
colonies  or  trading  stations  in  the  East  or  West,  must  be 
brought  into  England  in  EngHsh  ships  or  the  ships  of  the 
English  colonists.  This  Act  prevented  the  Dutch  from 
carrying  goods  from  other  nations,  or  even  the  spices  of  the 
East  Indies,  to  England  or  the  EngHsh  colonies.  This  and 
other  causes  of  quarrel  brought  on  war. 

New  Amsterdam  in  Danger. — Never  had  the  EngHsh  Chan- 
nel seen  such  fighting,  not  even  in  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
Armada.  The  hero  of  the  Dutch  was  Van  Tromp,  while  the 
EngHsh  hero  was  Blake,  who  had  been  one  of  Cromwell's 
generals.  The  EngHsh  sent  several  ships  to  New  England, 
expecting  to  raise  a  small  army  and  capture  New  Amster- 
dam. The  Massachusetts  Bay  people  refused  assistance,  on 
the  ground  that  the  Dutch  had  not  injured   them.     News 


ENGLISH   ATTACK   NEW   AMSTERDAM 


83 


soon  came  that  the  war  was  over,  and  so  New  Amsterdam 
was  saved  for  a  while. 

A  New  Attack  on  the  Dutch.  —  When  Charles  II  became 
king  in  England,  parliament  made  more  laws  about  trade  on 
the  sea,  forbidding  all  foreign  ships,  the  Dutch  included,  to 
trade  with  the  EngKsh  colonies.  European  goods  must  first 
be  sent  to  England,  in  order  that  the  EngHsh  merchant  and 
shipowner  might  share  in  the  profits  of  the  trade.  The  Dutch 
submitted,   but  soon  discovered   that  it  was  impossible  to 


New  Amsterdam  in  1655 
After  Van  der  Donck's  New  Netherland 


satisfy  the  EngHsh,  who  next  robbed  them  of  their  colony. 
The  king's  brother  James  was  ''mad  for  war"  with  them, 
and  asked  Charles  to  grant  him  all  the  Dutch  territory. 
Charles,  generous  with  what  he  did  not  possess,  agreed,  giving 
James  the  whole  region  between  the  Connecticut  and  the 
Delaware,  without  even  mentioning  the  Dutch. 

Seizure  of  New  Amsterdam.  —  A  few  months  later,  in 
1664,  four  ships  of  war,  with  many  soldiers  on  board,  appeared 
before  New  Amsterdam.  The  EngUsh  demanded  the  sur- 
render of  the  place,  but  the  governor,  Peter  Stuyvesant,  tore 
up  the  letter  containing  the  demand  and  attempted  to  defend 
the  fort.  His  councillors,  thinking  that  it  was  hopeless  to 
fight,  made  him  piece  together  the  fragments.    When  they 


84 


DUTCH   AND    ENGLISH    RIVALRIES 


saw  the  terms   which  the    EngHsh  offered,  they  compelled 
him  to  agree  to  them. 

Beginnings  of  New  York.  —  Colonel  NicoUs,  the  EngHsh 
commander,  changed  the  name  of  New  Amsterdam  to  New 
York,  and  the  name  of  Fort  Orange  to  Albany,  in  honor  of 
James,  who  was  both  Duke  of  York  and  Duke  of  Albany. 

Stuyvesant  continued  to  live  on 
his  farm,  called  the  Great  Bowery, 
until  his  death.  The  old  church 
in  the  fort  was  used  by  the  Dutch 
Sunday  mornings,  by  the  French 
Protestants  at  mid-day,  and  by 
the  English  in  the  afternoon.  The 
EngHsh  mode  of  government  was 
introduced  within  a  few  years,  in- 
cluding trial  by  jury  and  repre- 
sentative assemblies.  The  origi- 
nal Dutch  inhabitants  soon  began 
to  learn  the  English  language,  and 

After  the  portrait  in  the  posses-  i      ti  i     •       t^       t  i 

sion  of   the   New   York  Historical    bccamC    mUCh    hkc    their    English 

^°^^^^y  neighbors. 

New  Jersey.  —  Before  Colonel  NicoUs  had  reached  New 
Amsterdam  the  Duke  of  York  had  given  to  two  friends.  Lord 
Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret,  all  the  land  from  the 
Hudson  to  the  Delaware.  It  was  named  New  Jersey  because 
Sir  George  Carteret  had  bravely  defended  the  island  of  Jer- 
sey against  the  Puritans  during  the  English  civil  war.  The 
proprietors  were  eager  to  attract  settlers  to  their  territory, 
and  promised  that  each  should  worship  as  he  wished.  They 
offered  200  acres  in  every  community  for  the  support  of  the 
minister  whom  the  settlers  should  choose. 

The  Dutch  at  New  York  again.  —  The  seizure  of  New 
Amsterdam  hastened  on  war  between  England  and  the 
Netherlands.     The  Dutch  made  no  attempt  to  recover  New 


Peter  Stuyvesant 


ENGLISH   HOLD    THE   ATLANTIC    SHORE 


8S 


York.  Several  years  later,  in  another  war  with  the  English, 
they  did  recapture  New  York  and  held  it  for  15  months. 
They  were  obHged  to  restore  it  when  peace  was  made.  This 
was  the  last  war  between  the  Dutch  and  the  English,  who 
had  already  begun  to  see  that  the  French  and  not  the  Dutch 
were  their  most  dangerous  rivals. 


The  Stadt  Huys,  New  York,  1679 

The  English  hold  the  Atlantic  Shore.  —  The  capture  of 
New  Netherland  gave  the  English  control  of  the  whole  Atlan- 
tic coast  from  the  St.  Croix  River  to  the  St.  Mary's  on  the 
boundary  of  Spanish  Florida.  The  settlement  of  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Carolinas,  which  was  begun  soon  after 
New  Amsterdam  was  taken,  strengthened  their  hold  on  all 
this  territory,  for  unoccupied  land  was  always  in  danger  of 
being  seized  by  some  rival  nation. 


QUESTIONS 

I.  What  rivals  had  the  EngHsh  in  colonizing    what  is  now  the  United 
States?    Which  was  the  first  rival  to  lose  its  American  territories? 


86  DUTCH   AND    ENGLISH   RIVALRIES 

2.  For  what  purpose  was  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  formed?  Why 
did  it  want  the  lands  about  the  Hudson?  What  settlements  did  the  company 
make?  In  what  ways  was  the  Dutch  colony  at  New  Amsterdam  like  James- 
town? 

3.  How  did  the  West  India  Company  attempt  to  settle  its  land  faster? 

How  well  did  the  plan  succeed? 

4.  Why  did  the  Dutch  have  trouble  with  the  Indians? 

5.  What  settlements  did  the  Dutch  make  near  New  Amsterdam?  Who 
besides  the  Dutch  settled  in  New  Netherland?  What  outlying  trading  posts 
did  the  Dutch  found? 

6.  At  what  points  were  the  English  settlers  and  traders  closing  in  on  the 
Dutch  in  New  Netherland? 

7.  What  restrictions  did  parliament  place  on  the  commerce  of  the  English 
colonists?    Whose  trade  did  parliament  intend  to  check? 

8.  What  changes  did  the  English  make  after  the  conquest  of  the  Dutch 

colony? 

9.  Who  obtained  the  Duke  of  York's  lands  between  the  Hudson  and  the 
Delaware?  What  special  privileges  did  the  proprietors  of  New  Jersey  allow 
their  settlers? 

10.   How  much  of  the  Atlantic  coast  did  England  hold  after  the  conquest  of 

New  Netherland? 

EXERCISE 
Locate  on  a  map  (see  map,  page  92)   the  English  settlements  which  were 
nearest  New  Amsterdam  on  the  east  and  on  the  west,  including  Claiborne's 
trade  route  on  the  Susquehanna. 

Important  Date : 

1664.   The  English  conquest  of  the  Dutch  colony  of  New  Netherland. 


CHAPTER   IX 
A   SECOND    GREAT   EMIGRATION 

Virginia  and  the  Commonwealth.  —  While  civil  war  was 
raging  in  England  few  men  thought  of  founding  colonies  in 
America.  After  the  king's  party  was  overthrown,  many  cav- 
aliers emigrated  to  Virginia.  In  1649,  33°  refugees  arrived 
on  one  ship.  Supported  by  them,  Sir  William  Berkeley,  the 
governor,  and  the  General  Assembly  condemned  the  exe- 
cution of  Charles  I  and  declared  their  loyalty  to  his  son 
Charles  II  as  king.  The  victorious  Puritans  and  their  par- 
liament sent  out  an  expedition  to  bring  the  defiant  colony  to 
terms.  WHien  it  reached  Virginia  in  1652,  Berkeley  put  the 
miHtia,  1,200  strong,  under  arms  and  prepared  to  resist.  The 
leaders  of  the  expedition,  partly  by  a  show  of  force,  partly  by 
willingness  to  grant  generous  terms,  persuaded  the  Virginians 
to  promise  obedience  to  the  Commonwealth. 

Emigration  of  Royalists  to  Virginia.  —  The  emigration  of 
the  royalist  party  to  Virginia,  however,  continued.  A 
writer  Hving  at  the  time  spoke  of  "civil,  honorable,  and  men 
of  great  estates"  flocking  in.  One  of  them  was  John  Wash- 
ington, great-grandfather  of  George  Washington.  Within 
twenty  years  the  population  increased  from  15,000  to  40,000. 
After  1660,  when  Charles  II  was  restored  to  his  father's  throne, 
fewer  of  the  royalist  party  came  over. 

The  West  Indies.^  —  Another  region  to  which  many  emi- 

^  It  should  be  remembered  that  since  the  occupation  of  Porto  Rico  and  the 
building  of  the  Panama  Canal  the  history  of  the  West  India  Islands  has  become 
of  great  interest  to  the  people  of  the  United  States. 


88  A   SECOND    GREAT   EMIGRATION 

grants  went  from  England  at  about  this  time  was  the  West 
Indies.  The  Spaniards  did  not  make  as  much  use  of  these 
islands  as  they  did  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  but  they  wished  to 
keep  out  the  sailors  of  other  nations.  Adventurers  from  every- 
where sailed  the  West  Indian  seas.  They  attacked  Spanish 
treasure  ships,  loaded  with  gold  and  silver  from  the  mines, 
and  even  cities  like  Vera  Cruz  and  Panama.  To  obtain  food 
they  hunted  wild  cattle,  smoking  the  meat  over  wood  fires 


called  houcanes.  This  gave  them  the  name  ''buccaneers." 
They  were  also  called  ''freebooters"  or  "filibusters,"  from 
their  swift  ships,  vliebooten  or  "flying  boats."  Some  of  them 
settled  on  unoccupied  islands,  the  French  at  Martinique, 
Guadaloupe,  and  western  Haiti,  ^  the  Dutch  at  Curasao,  and 
the  Enghsh  at  Barbados.    About  1640  these  settlers  began  to 

1  Columbus  called  this  island  Espanola,  or  "  Little  Spain."  One  of  the  chief 
towns  was  named  Santo  Domingo,  and  in  time  the  English,  French,  and  even 
the  Spanish  gave  that  name  to  the  entire  island.  Early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  some  leading  writers  on  geography  suggested  the  use  of  the  original 
Indian  name,  Haiti,  which  meant  "mountainous  country,"  and  this  is  now  the 
usual  one  for  the  island. 


DISSENTERS 


89 


raise  cane  sugar.  The  Dutch,  however,  were  mainly  inter- 
ested in  smuggling.  Their  settlement  at  Curasao  was  the 
great  market  at  which  to  obtain  the  products  of  Europe 
and  the  East  Indies.  Even  Spanish  colonists  traded  there, 
because  the  merchants  of  Spain  asked  higher  prices  than 
the  Dutch. 

Jamaica.  —  At  first  the  settlements  in  the  West  Indies 
received  little  help  from  European  governments.  A  change 
took  place  under  Oliver  Cromwell  and  the  Commonwealth. 
While  England  was  at  war  with  Spain  Cromwell  sent  Admiral 
Penn  and  General  Venables  to  attack  the  Spaniards  in  the 
West  Indies.  They  failed  to  capture  Haiti,  but  took  Jamaica. 
One  of  its  first  governors  was  a  Welshman  named  Morgan, 
who  had  begun  his  career  as  a  hardy  buccaneer.  Planters 
came  in  from  Barbados.  Cromwell  sent  over  from  Scotland 
and  Ireland  many  who  opposed  the  Commonwealth. 

Dissenters. — Religious  troubles  again  became  the  princi- 
pal reason  for  emigration  as  soon  as  Charles  II  was  made 
king.  He  was  surrounded  by  his  father's 
friends  and  supporters,  who  insisted  that 
the  rules  of  the  church  made  under  Queen 
Elizabeth,  James  I,  and  Charles  I,  should 
be  enforced.  Rather  than  submit,  2,000 
clergymen  gave  up  their  parishes.  As 
they  dissented  from  the  methods  of  wor- 
ship ordered  by  law,  they  were  from  that 
time  commonly  called  ''Dissenters."  The 
most  numerous  were  the  Presbyterians, 
the  Independents  or  Congregationalists, 
and  the  Baptists.  If  they  attempted  to 
meet  for  worship,  they  were  thrown  into 
prison. 

The  Society  of  Friends.  —  Another  group  of  Dissenters 
was  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  the  Quakers.     The  founder  of 


A  Quaker  of  the 
17TH  Century 


90  A   SECOND    GREAT   EMIGRATION 

the  Quakers  was  George  Fox.  He  thought  that  all  God's 
children  should  be  treated  as  brethren.  He  spoke  with  no 
greater  respect  to  the  magistrate  than  to  ordinary  men,  refus- 
ing to  give  any  man  a  title,  and  addressing  each  with  "thee" 
and  'Hhou."    He  and  his  followers  would  not  take  off  their 

hats  even  in  a  court  room.  They 
believed  so  firmly  in  the  brother- 
hood of  man  that  they  would 
neither  bear  arms  themselves  nor 
pay  for  the  support  of  soldiers.  As 
they  would  not  obey  laws  of  which 
their  consciences  disapproved,  they 
were  often  arrested  and  thrown  into 
prison.  About  3,000  were  arrested 
in  the  first  two  years  of  the  reign 

^  of  Charles  II. 

William  Penn  „x.«.        -r^  rr^i 

William  Penn. — The  most  prom- 
inent Quaker  in  England  at  this  time  was  William  Penn, 
son  of  Admiral  Penn,  who  was  a  favorite  with  King  Charles 
II.  The  old  admiral  was  at  first  enraged  when  his  son 
became  a  Quaker,  but  finally  forgave  him.  On  the  death  of 
the  admiral  in  1670,  William  inherited  the  family  estate, 
which  gave  him  an  income  equal  to  $25,000  or  $30,000  at 
the  present  day. 

Six  years  later  Penn  purchased  a  share  in  New  Jersey, 
which  had  already  become  a  refuge  for  distressed  Quakers. 
They  settled  mostly  in  the  western  part  of  the  colony  along 
the  Delaware.  By  1682  Penn  and  other  wealthy  Quakers 
owned  all  the  shares  of  the  original  proprietors.  Many  Puri- 
tans had  also  come  in  from  Connecticut  and  had  selected 
farms  in  northern  New  Jersey. 

The  "Holy  Experiment." — Meanwhile  Penn  had  become 
interested  in  another  plan  of  colony  building,  which  he  called 
his  "Holy  Experiment."    As  King  Charles  owed  him  money 


PENNSYLVANIA 


91 


A  brief  Account  oF  the 

^;oDmteof^ennfj)lDattta. 


K 


Lately  Granted  by  (he 


G. 


borrowed  from  his  father,  Penn  asked  for  a  grant  of  land  west 
of  the  Delaware  and  north  of  Maryland.  He  proposed  to 
call  the  country  New  Wales  or  Sylvania.  The  king  granted 
the  land,  and  insisted 
on  the  latter  name, 
and,  in  honor  of  Ad- 
miral Penn,  placed 
*' Penn  "before  it,  mak- 
ing ' '  Pennsylvania, ' ' 
or  'Venn's  Wood." 

Delaware.  —  The 
year  after  Penn  had 
obtained  Pennsylvania 
from  the  king,  he  in- 
duced the  king's  bro- 
ther, the  Duke  of 
York,  to  give  him  the 
land  which  now  makes 
up  the  state  of  Dela- 
ware. Penn  thus  in 
1 68 1  and  1682  pos- 
sessed all  the  lands 
along  the  west  side  of 
the  Delaware  River 
from  its  mouth  almost 
to  its  source. 

Penn    seeks    for 


I  N 

Under  the  GREAT 

Seal  of  England, 
WILLIAM  PENN 

AND  HIS 

Heirs      and     Affigns. 

Since  (by  (he  good  Providence  ol  CtJ,  and  the  Favour  of  jhe  ATi/zf)  a 
Country  in  AmtrUn  is  (illen  to  my  Lot,  1  thought  it  not  \th  my 
Duiy,  then  my  Honed  Inttrcft,  to  give  fomc  pubh'ck  notice  of  It  i<» 
ibc  World,  (hat  thofc  of  our  own  or  other  Nitions,  that  are  inclin'd 
toTranfport  Themfelves  or  Families  beyond  the  Seas,  may  find  ano- 
ther Country  added  to  their  Choice;  that  if  they  ftiall  happen  to  liitc 
the  Place,  Conditions,  and  Government,  (fo  far  as  the  ptcfent  Infancy  of  ihirgt 
will  allow  us  any  prorpeO)  they  may,  if  they  pleafc.  fix  with  tnt  in  the  Pro; 
Vlnce,  hereafter  dcfcribcd. 

I.  The  KING'S  Title  to  tfm  CoHniry  before  he  granted  it. 
It  is  the  Jm  Ctm'iMm.  <tt  Law  of  Nations,  that  what  ever  Wafte,  or  uncul- 
tcd Country,  is  the  Difcovcry  «f  any  Prince,  it  is  the  right  of  that  Prince  that 
•was  at  the  Charge  of  the  DrTcovery :  Now  this  frtviiit  is  a  Member  of  that 
part  of  AmtTicn,  which  the  King  of  £n£UnJi  Anceftors  have  been  at  the  Charge 
of  Dlfcovcring,  and  which  they  »ai  he  have  taken  great  cate  to  pteferve  anJ 
Improve.  / 

1 1.  Williani 


First   Page   of   Penn's    "Account 
Pennsylvania  " 
Reduced  facsimile 


OF 


Emigrants.  —  Penn 
expected  to  find  many  settlers  among  the  persecuted 
Quakers,  but  he  wished  also  to  obtain  other  industrious 
persons.  In  order  to  attract  them  to  his  colony  he  pre- 
pared an  Account  of  the  Province  of  Pennsylvania,  which  he 
sent  to  many  places  in  the  British  Isles.  He  had  it  trans- 
lated into  French,  German,  and  Dutch,  so  that  Europeans 


92 


A   SECOND    GREAT   EMIGRATION 


might  read  about  the  enterprise,  and,  perhaps,  come  to 
America  and  join  the  colony. 

A  Proprietary  Colony.  —  Penn  was  proprietor  of  his  colony, 
as  Lord  Baltimore  was  of  Maryland.  Even  before  he  had 
any  settlers  he  wrote  out  a  constitution,  from  the  words 
of  which  it  was  clear  that  he  was  interested  in  something 

more  than  the  prof- 
its of  the  enter- 
prise. Through 
councils  and  as- 
semblies he  plan- 
ned to  share  the 
management  of 
the  colony  with  the 
settlers.  In  the 
laws  which  he  drew 
up  he  showed  that 
he  was  far  ahead 
of  most  men  of  his 
day.  For  example, 
prisoners  were  not 
to  be  tormented 
and  starved  as 
The  Middle  Colonies  ^hey  were  in  Eng- 

lish prisons  at  that  time,  but  were  to  be  fed  and  clothed. 
Penn  believed  that  the  aim  should  be  to  reform  rather  than 
simply  to  punish  them. 

The  Founding  of  Philadelphia,  1682.  —  Penn  sent  his 
cousin,  William  Markham,  to  Pennsylvania  in  1681  with  a 
party  of  colonists.  He  followed,  the  next  year,  with  about  a 
hundred  others,  mostly  Quakers  from  his  own  neighborhood 
in  England.  Others  of  the  early  settlers  came  from  Wales 
and  Ireland.  The  first  party  of  colonists  selected  a  site  for  a 
town  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  up  the  Delaware 


Ft. Nassau)  i 
,0    /]V,l,iun</ton 
\      ^C^^Ft.Cluiotina) 

''    'V       ^-^         I'll  ATLANTIC 


OCEAN 


GROWTH   OF    THE    COLONY 


93 


River.  Broad  streets  and  squares  were  laid  out  in  a  grove  of 
pine  trees  on  a  low  bluff  along  the  river  front.  Penn  called  his 
town  Philadelphia,  a  Greek  word  meaning  ''brotherly  love." 

Growth  of  the  Colony.  —  Penn's  colony  grew  rapidly.  As 
the  lands  about  Philadelphia  were  soon  taken,  later  comers 
scattered  along  the  Delaware   River   within  the  limits   of 


Friends'  Meeting  House  and  the  Old  Court  House 
Philadelphia 

Delaware  and  eastern  Pennsylvania.  One  of  the  earlier 
settlers  wrote  an  account  of  his  experiences.  ''I  settled/' 
he  wrote,  ''upon  my  tract  of  land,  which  I  purchased  of 
the  Proprietor  .  .  .  and  set  up  a  house  and  a  corn  mill 
which  was  very  useful  to  the  country  for  several  miles 
round.  But  there  not  being  plenty  of  horses,  people  gener- 
ally brought  their  corn  on  their  backs  many  miles;  I  remem- 
ber one  man  who  had  a  bull  so  gentle  that  he  used  to  bring 
his  corn  on  him  instead  of  a  horse."  Many  of  the  settlers 
in  the  first  years  had  neither  horses  nor  plows.  As  the  colo- 
nists were  industrious  and  thrifty  there  was  no  starving  time 
in  Pennsylvania. 

Germantown.  —  Among  the  earHer  bands  of  settlers  were 
twelve  or  thirteen  German  famiUes,  mostly  weavers,  under 


94 


A    SECOND    GREAT   EMIGRATION 


the  leadership  of  Francis  Daniel  Pastorius.  They  reached 
Philadelphia  in  1683  and  were  welcomed  by  Penn.  They 
bought  a  tract  of  land  a  few  miles  north  of  the  town,  and 
began  the  settlement  known  as  Germantown. 


Germantown  in  1692 


Penn's  Treaties  with  the  Indians.  —  Penn  was  much  inter- 
ested in  the  Indians,  and  often  traveled  among  them.  In 
June,  1683,  he  met  a  large  number  of  chiefs  and  their  warriors 
under  a  great  elm  tree  near  Philadelphia  and  made  a  treaty 
with  them.  The  spot  where  this  Treaty  Elm  stood  is  now 
marked  by  a  monument,  and  is  within  the  present  limits  of 
the  city.  Penn  described  the  treaty  in  a  letter  to  his  friends 
in  England,  —  ''great  promises  passed  between  us  of  kindness 
and  good  neighborhood,  and  that  the  Indians  and  English 
must  live  in  love  as  long  as  the  sun  gave  light." 

Penn  purchased  the  land  from  the  Indians,  although  the 
king  had  given  it  to  him.  He  bought  from  a  chief  one  tract 
of  land  as  far  back  from  the  Delaware  as  a  man  could  ride 
on  horseback  in  two  days.  The  chief  was  to  receive  ''so  much 
wampum,  so  many  guns,  shoes,  stockings,  looking-glasses, 
blankets,  and  other  goods  as  William  Penn  shall  please  to 
give  us." 


THE    CAROLINAS 


95 


T-; 


■VIRGINIA 


w; 


^,,'^:      1G07  \ 

NORTH   CAROLINA     ^-T^  'Vjifio.nd 


iG50 


Penn*s  Return  to  England.  —  Penn  was  obliged  to  return 
to  England  in  1684,  and,  except  for  a  brief  visit  many 
years  later,  saw  nothing  more  of  his  colonies.  Most  matters 
of  government  were  left  to  the  colonists  themselves  or  to  a 
commission,  and  later  to  a  deputy  governor  who  represented 
him  as  proprietor.  Penn  tried 
to  manage  matters  by  corre- 
spondence, but  he  was  too  far 
away. 

The  Carolinas.  —  During  this 
period  of  rapid  emigration  from 
England  to  Pennsylvania  many 
dissenters  also  went  to  the 
CaroHnas.  The  settlements  in 
northern  and  southern  Carolina 
were  not  planned  at  first,  like 
Pennsylvania,  as  a  refuge  for 
the  oppressed.  They  were 
more  like  the  original  settle- 
ment of  Virginia.  Indeed,  the 
first  settlers  came  from  Vir- 
ginia, following  the  Indian 
trails  along  the  coast.      They 

cleared  land  on  the  Chowan  River  near  Albemarle  Sound. 
They  were  already  there  when  Charles  II  gave  to  eight  noble- 
men all  the  territory  from  the  southern  boundary  of  Virginia 
to  Spanish  Florida.  The  region  had  long  been  known  as 
CaroHna,  a  name  given  it  in  honor  of  the  king's  father, 
Charles  I. 

Charleston.  —  The  proprietors  of  CaroHna  were  not  con- 
tent with  the  small  colony  of  Virginians  on  the  Chowan  River, 
and  in  1670  they  sent  to  southern  Carolina  a  larger  body  of 
settlers,  partly  from  England  and  partly  from  Barbados.  The 
colonists  began  their  settlement  on  an  excellent  harbor  at  the 


4 


The  Carolina  Coast 


96 


A   SECOND    GREAT   EMIGRATION 


SCALE   OF   M4LES 


junction  of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper  Rivers.  They  named  it 
for  the  king,  Charles  Town  or  Charleston.  Some  years  later 
their  settlement  was  moved  to  the  site  of  the  present  city. 

The  colonists  at  Charleston  remembered  the  fate  of  the 
French  colony  at  Fort  CaroHne  a  hundred  years  before,  and 
feared  a  similar  attack  from  the  Spaniards.  Their  fears 
were  not  groundless,  for  within  a  few  weeks  a  Spanish  vessel, 

sent  to  break  up  the  settle- 
ment, appeared  off  the  harbor. 
The  Spaniards  on  board,  find- 
ing the  settlers  on  their  guard, 
returned  to  St.  Augustine 
without  striking  a  blow. 
Some  years  later  they  de- 
stroyed a  small  Scotch  settle- 
ment nearer  the  borders  of 
Florida. 

Huguenots  in  South  Caro- 
lina. —  Charleston  and  the 
country  around  became  a  ref- 
uge for  many  Huguenots,  or 
French  Protestants,  who  had  fled  because  Louis  XIV  would  no 
longer  allow  them  to  worship  as  they  believed  right.  The 
proprietors  were  glad  to  obtain  such  valuable  settlers,  and 
offered  them  full  religious  liberty.  Merchants,  goldsmiths, 
shipwrights,  weavers,  and  men  of  other  trades  found  employ- 
ment in  Charleston.  At  least  seventy  famiHes  took  up  lands 
along  the  rivers  back  of  the  early  settlements.  Part  of 
southern  Carolina  seemed  for  a  while  almost  a  French  colony, 
as  there  were  so  many  settlers  who  could  not  speak  English. 
The  Carolinas  divided.  —  The  proprietors  did  not  con- 
sider the  settlements  on  the  Albemarle  and  at  Charleston  as 
two  distinct  colonies,  but  as  parts  of  one.  They  were,  how- 
ever, too  far  apart  to  have  any  dealings  with  each  other.     It 


ATLANTIC 
OCEAN 


Charleston  Harbor 


THE    CAROLINAS    DIVIDED 


97 


was  nearly  three  hundred  miles  from  one  to  the  other,  and 
by  land  only  Indian  trails  connected  them.  Stormy  Cape 
Hatteras  projected  into  the  ocean  far  enough  to  make  the 
journey  in  small  sailing  vessels  very  dangerous.  Each 
colony  Hked  to  manage  its  own  affairs  without  much  inter- 
ference from  the  proprietors.  Years  later,  by  1729,  the 
proprietors    surrendered    their  rights  in   the  colony   to   the 


Charleston  in  1673 
From  an  old  print 

king.    It  was  then  divided  into  North  Carolina  and  South 
Carolina. 

Size  of  the  Second  "Great  Emigration."  —  By  1700,  5,000 
colonists  Hved  in  southern  CaroHna,  and  3,000  in  northern 
CaroHna.  About  20,000  people  had  gone  from  Europe  to 
Pennsylvania  and  Delaware;  the  majority  of  these  were 
Quakers.  About  14,000  had  settled  in  New  Jersey  —  the 
Quakers  in  the  west,  Puritans  from  New  England  in  the 
north,  and  EngHsh  and  Scotch  in  the  east,  besides  some 
Dutch  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson.  Meanwhile  the  popu- 
lation of  New  York  had  increased  to  25,000,   the  city  on 


98  A   SECOND    GREAT   EMIGRATION 

Manhattan  Island  numbering  5,000.  Most  of  the  early 
emigration  to  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  the  Carolinas 
took  place  in  the  years  from  1680  to  1690,  and  was  due  to 
religious  troubles  in  England  and  Europe.  This  is  the  second 
great  emigration  in  American  history. 

QUESTIONS 

I.  Who  came  to  America  after  the  EngUsh  Civil  War?  Where  did  these 
emigrants  settle?  What  colony  did  Englishmen  found  in  the  West  Indies? 
What  one  did  they  take  from  the  Spaniards? 

2    Who  were  the  Dissenters?     How  were  they  treated  in  England? 

3'  Why  did  Penn  become  interested  in  America?  Where  did  the  Quakers 
at  first  settle?     Who  besides  Quakers  settled  in  New  Jersey? 

4  What  was  Penn's  "Holy  Experiment"?  What  lands  did  Penn  secure 
in  America?     In  what  ways  did  Penn  show  himself  hberal  with  his  colonists? 

5.  Who  formed  Penn's  first  colonists?     Where  did  they  make  their  chief 

settlements?  r  .,     t  j-       d 

6.  Plow  did  Penn  manage  to  keep  the  friendship  of  the  Indians? 
7    How  did  Penn  govern  his  colony  after  returning  to  England? 

5  Who  first  settled  within  what  is  now  North  Carolina?  Who  obtained 
the  rights  over  the  CaroHnas?  What  other  settlement  did  the  proprietors  make? 

9.  Who  besides  English  Dissenters  went  to  South  Carolina?  How  were 
the  Huguenots  treated  in  South  Carolina? 

10.  Why  were  the  Carolinas  separated?     Who  obtained  the  rights  of  the 

proprietors  over  the  CaroHnas? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Make  three  Hsts:  (i)  one  of 
the  colonies  estabhshed  by  proprie- 
tors, (2)  of  those  established  by  the 
effort  of  a  trading  company,  and 
(3)  of  those  planted  by  the  volun- 
tary effort  of  the  colonists. 

2.  What   was    the   first    great 

emigration  in   American   history? 

,     ^  -r.  ^..r^^rr^^     Was  Its  causc  similar  to   that  of 

Penn's  First  Residence  in  America     y^^  . 

the     second     great     emigration? 

Where  did  the  emigrants  settle  in  each  case? 

Important  Dates : 

1670.   Settlement  at  Charleston  (Albemarle  Point). 

1681    1682.   A  colony  in  Pennsylvania.     Philadelphia  is  founded. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE   FRENCH    RIVALS 


The  English  and  French  as  Rivals.  —  The  rivalry  of  the 
English  and  the  French  was  not  keen  at  first  because  moun- 
tains and  forests  for  hundreds  of  miles  separated  nearly  all 
the  settlements  of  the  two  peoples.  To  reach  the  St.  Law- 
rence from  the  EngHsh  settlements  on  the  northern  Atlantic 
coast  a  long  and  toilsome  journey  was  required.  The  trav- 
eler had  to  paddle  up  the  Kennebec,  the  Connecticut,  or  the 
Hudson,  until  he  reached  their  head-waters.  Then  crossing 
mountain  ridges  he  would  find  rivers  which  flowed  into  the  St. 
Lawrence.  The  Hudson  route  was  the  best.  It  was  easy 
to  pass  over  into  the  Champlain  Valley,  and  to  go  through 
Lake  George  and  Lake  Champlain  into 
the  Richeheu  River.  The  RicheHeu 
flows  into  the  St.  Lawrence  between 
Quebec  and  Montreal.. 

Acadia.  —  The  only  place  where  the 
English  and  the  French  came  directly 
into  conflict  was  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  Maine  and  in  Nova  Scotia. 
The  French  called  the  region  Acadia. 
As  early  as  in  1654  an  Enghsh  officer, 
with  soldiers  collected  chiefly  in  New 
England,  captured  Port  Royal  and 
the  other  French  settlements  in  Acadia. 
The  Enghsh  gave  them  back  thirteen 
years  later.  The  reason  for  such  troubles  was  the  lack  of 
any  natural  border  or  boundary  between  these  settlements 
and  the  Enghsh  settlements  in  Maine. 


A  Beaver 

Beaver  skins  were  the  staple 
in  the  fur  trade 


lOO 


THE    FRENCH    RIVALS 


French  Trading  Companies.  —  The  French,  Hke  the  Eng- 
Hsh  and  the  Dutch,  formed  companies  to  trade  and  to  found 
colonies.  Sometimes  the  king  commanded  rich  nobJes  to 
take  shares  in  order  that  these  companies  might  have 
money  enough  to  fit  out  ships  and  collect  colonists.  Unfor- 
tunately for  the  shareholders,  most  of  the  companies  gained 
little  profit.  In  this  respect  they  did  not  differ  from  many 
of  the  English  companies.  In  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  a 
company  with  the  pleasant  name  of  the  Hundred  Associates 
at  first  had  charge  of  Champlain's  colony. 


Canadian  Farms 

The  farm  houses  in  eastern  Canada  are  still  much  the  same  as  they 
were  200  years  ago 

The*  Lot  of  Canadian  Farmers.  —  In  Canada  the  houses  of 
the  settlers  were  scattered  along  the  rivers,  as  were  the  houses 
of  the  first  Virginians.  The  land  was  not  given  to  the  farmers 
directly,  but  to  nobles,  or  seigniors,  as  such  landlords  were 
called  in  France.  The  seigniors  divided  the  land  into  farms 
which  they  rented  to  the  ordinary  colonists.  The  rent  was 
small  and  was  paid  either  in  money  or  in  produce.  A  penny 
or  so  an  acre,  a  few  chickens,  a  dozen  eggs,  or  a  sack  of  wheat 
were  the  usual  charges. 

Like  the  settlers  on  the  estates  of  the  Dutch  patroons,  the 
farmers  must  grind  their  grain  at  the  seignior's  mill,  paying 
a  fourteenth  of  the  grain  for  the  work.  This  was  at  first  a 
benefit  rather  than  a  burden,  for  the  farmers  could  not  have 


FRENCH    SETTLERS  '  iot 

built  mills  for  themselves.  The  farmers  were  commonly 
required  to  work  three  or  four  days  each  year  on  the  seignior's 
land,  at  seed  time  or  harvest.  The  lord  occasionally  demanded 
extra  days,  while  his  mill  was  being  built,  or  the  church 
repaired,  or  the  roads  improved.  One  fish  in  every  eleven 
was  taken  by  him  for  the  privilege  of  fishing,  if  the  colonists 
intended  to  sell  the  fish. 

The  lord  lived  in  a  house  befitting  his  wealth  and  power. 
The  large  log  house  with  its  slab  roof  —  which  was  built  in 


French  Missionaries  to  the  Indians 
From  an  old  print 

the  earlier  years  —  gave  way  after  a  time  to  stately  houses 
of  stone.  The  peasant  farmers  continued  to  live  in  log  houses, 
which  they  brightened  with  whitewash.  Their  fields  ran  back 
from  the  rivers  in  ribbon-like  strips  less  than  eight  hundred 
feet  wide,  but  extending  as  far  as  convenient. 

Jesuit  Missionaries.  —  One  purpose  which  the  founders  of 
the  French  colonies  had  was  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  to 
the  Christian  faith.  Missionaries,  accordingly,  were  promi- 
nent in  the  Canadian  settlements.  The  Jesuits  were  espe- 
cially zealous,  brave,  and  self-sacrificing.  They  pushed  ahead 
of  the  other  settlers,  seeking  new  tribes  near  which  to  estab- 
lish stations.  Their  lives  were  often  in  danger.  Some  suffered 
untold  tortures,  and  others  were  burned  at  the  stake.    The 


IC2 


THE    FRENCH    RIVALS 


world  has  no  nobler  story  than  the  record  of  their  labors  and 
their  martyrdom. 

The  Beginnings  of  Canadian  Towns.  —  An  Indian  mission 
station  began  with  a  chapel  made  of  bark,  which  was  soon 
replaced  by  a  well-built  church.  The  first  missionaries, 
like  the  traders,  lived  among  the  Indians.  As  the  mission 
prospered,  separate  homes  were  built  for  them  near  the 
church.     If  the  governor  of  Canada  deemed  the  settlement 


A  View  of  Detroit  in  1705 

important,  a  few  soldiers  were  stationed  there.  A  store- 
house for  traders  was  also  built,  and  the  whole  group  of 
houses  surrounded  by  a  paHsade  to  guard  against  sudden 
attack  by  hostile  Indians.  Usually  the  wigwams  of  friendly 
Indians  stood  not  far  away  on  the  edge  of  a  wood.  Such  was 
the  beginning  of  many  a  Canadian  town.  Father  Mar- 
quette had  founded  a  station  of  this  sort  on  the  Straits  of 
Mackinac.  It  was  from  there  that  he  set  out  in  search  of  the 
Mississippi  River  in  1673.  Another  station  was  estabHshed 
in  1 701  on  the  river  which  joins  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Huron, 
and  was  named  Detroit. 

Fur  Trade.  —  As  the  fur  trade  was  profitable,  about  a 
third  of  the  French  colonists  made  no  attempt  to  cultivate 


CONFLICT   WITH   THE    ENGLISH 


103 


^'^i:li 


the  soil.  They  pushed  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  woods  in 
search  of  the  best  places  at  which  to  trade  with  the  Indians. 
These  wood-rangers,  or  coureurs  de  hois  as  the  French  called 
them,  lived 'with  the  Indians  most  of  the  year,  and  differed 
from  them  little  in  dress  and  habits.  The  king's  officers 
threatened  to  brand  any  who 
went  among  the  Indians  with- 
out a  Hcense,  because  they 
feared  the  farms  would  be 
abandoned,  but  many  young 
men  were  fascinated  by  Hfe 
in  the  woods  and  ran  the  risk. 
The  Indians  often  brought 
their  furs  to  the  larger  towns. 
Annual  fairs  were  held  at  posts 
like  Mackinac,  Detroit,  and 
Montreal.  To  them  came 
throngs  of  Indians  with  heavily 
loaded  canoes  and  set  up  their 
wigwams. 

The  French  Government  and  the  Colonies.  —  The  French 
king,  Louis  XIV,  and  his  principal  minister,  Colbert,  took 
a  deep  interest  in  the  success  of  the  colonists  in  Canada. 
Colbert  wrote  to  Talon,  who  was  the  intendant,  or  man- 
ager, of  the  colony,  that  the  king  regarded  his  ''Canadian 
subjects,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  almost  as  his  own 
children,"  and  urged  Talon  to  ''visit  all  their  settlements, 
one  after  the  other,  in  order  to  learn  their  true  condition  and 
to  put  them  in  the  way  of  making  some  profit." 

Conflict  with  the  English.  —  The  French  were  not  left 
long  in  undisturbed  possession  of  Canada.  The  first  quarrel 
was  about  the  fur  trade.  In  1670  a  number  of  English 
nobles,  including  the  king's  brother  James,  proprietor  of 
New  York,  formed  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  obtained 


A   COUREUR  DE   BOIS 


I04  THE    FRENCH   RIVALS 

from  Charles  II  the  right  to  all  the  country  drained  by  the 
rivers  which  flowed  into  Hudson  Bay.  Their  agents  estab- 
lished posts  on  the  shores  of  the  bay  and  began  to  take 
trade  from  the  French  by  offering  better  prices  to  the  In- 
dians. The  French  resolved  to  ruin  these  rivals,  and  in  1685 
a  war  party  started  up  the  Ottawa  River  for  Hudson  Bay. 
But  the  English  could  not  be  driven  away,  and  the  French 
were  finally  obUged  to  leave  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's 
territory   alone. 

The  Iroquois  become  "English." — About  the  same  time 
the  French  and  the  EngKsh  began  to  struggle  for  the  control 
of  the  Iroquois  Indians,  the  powerful  group  of  tribes  which 
held  all  northern  and  western  New  York.  French  Jesuit 
missionaries  had  already  gone  among  the  Iroquois,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  winning  them  as  they  won  the  Indians  else- 
where. While  Tames  was  still  Duke  of  York  and  proprietor 
of  this  region,  his  agents  met  the  Iroquois  chiefs  at  Albany 
and  persuaded  them  to  acknowledge  that  they  were  subjects 
of  the  king  of  England.  The  English  then  hung  up  at  the 
Indian  towns  and  strongholds  the  coat  of  arms  of  Duke  James, 
and  warned  French  parties  which  attempted  to  enter  the 
region  that  they  were  trespassing  on  EngKsh  territory. 

Revolution  in  England.  —  In  1688  a  revolution  took  place 
in  England,  which  led  to  war  with  France  in  the  colonies 
as  well  as  in  Europe.  It  happened  in  this  way.  Charles  II 
died  in  1685  and  James  became  king.  Soon  most  members 
of  parliament  and  many  other  leading  men  suspected  him  of 
plotting  to  make  England  a  Roman  CathoHc  country  again. 
At  this  very  time  Louis  XIV,  the  cousin  of  James,  took  away 
from  the  French  Protestants  their  rights  of  worship.  The 
Huguenots  who  took  refuge  in  England  told  of  their  suffer- 
ings. James  had  been  on  the  throne  only  three  years  when 
his  subjects  rose  in  revolt.  They  offered  the  throne  to  his 
daughter  Mary  and  her  husband,  Wilham  of  Orange,   the 


INDIAN   MASSACRES 


105 


Dutch  ruler,  who  were  Protestants.     James  took  refuge  in 
France  with  Louis  XIV. 

England  in  League  against  France.  —  William  had  already 
formed  a  league  of  European  governments  against  the  French 
king.  As  he  was  now  king  of  England  the  Enghsh  entered 
the  league.  The  war  spread  to  America,  where  it  was  called 
King  WilHam's  War.  Shortly  after  it  closed  a  new  struggle 
broke  out,  which  is  called  Queen  Anne's  War.  Queen  Anne 
was  the  successor  of  King  WiUiam.  This  war  also  caused 
fighting  between  the  EngHsh  and  the  French  colonists.^ 

The  Horrors  of  War.  —  In  both  King  WilHam's  and  Queen 
Anne's  wars  the  EngHsh  and  the  French  made  use  of  Indian 
alHes  in  attacking  one  another,  encouraging  them  to  rob  and 
murder  in  heartless  fashion.  In 
1690  a  party  of  French  and  Indians 
stole  through  the  open  gate  of  the 
frontier  village  of  Schenectady  at 
about  eleven  o'clock  on  a  cold  win- 
ter night.  In  a  short  time  they 
killed  more  than  half  of  the  inhabi- 
tants and  carried  away  many  as 
captives.  The  English  soon  had 
their  revenge,  for  with  a  band  of 
their  Indian  allies  they  attacked  a 
small  village  on  the  St.  Lawrence 
opposite  Montreal,  burnt  the 
houses,  slaughtered  the  cattle,  and 
kihed  or  captured  as  many  of  the 
inhabitants  as  they  could  find. 

The  Attack  on  Deerfield.  —  Fourteen  years  later,  in  Queen 
Anne's  War,  200  Indians  and  50  Canadians  made  their  way  in 
the  dead  of  winter  down  into  the  Connecticut  River  Valley 

1  In  Europe  these  wars  are  called  the  War  of  the  League  of  Augsburg 
(1688-1697)  and  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (1702-17 13). 


Door  of  House  attacked 
BY  Indians 

In  Deerfield  Museum 


io6  THE    FRENCH   RIVALS 

as  far  as  Deerfield,  which  was  then  one  of  the  frontier  settle- 
ments of  Massachusetts.  At  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  the 
invaders  cHmbed  the  paHsades,  and  uttering  their  war-whoop, 
broke  into  all  except  the  most  securely  guarded  houses.  The 
fate  of  the  captives  was  worse  than  that  of  those  slain,  for 
any  who  became  exhausted  on  the  dreadful  march  back  to 
Canada  were  tomahawked  without  mercy. 

The  English  were  just  as  cruel.  The  legislature  of  Massa- 
chusetts offered  $200  for  every  Indian  scalp  brought  in. 
Soon  afterwards  an  Indian  village  was  surprised  and  five  In- 
dians were  scalped  and  the  reward  claimed. 

Conquest  of  Acadia.  —  Before  these  two  wars  were  over 
the  English  gained  one  important  territory.  In  17 10  an 
English  army,  with  the  aid  of  colonists,  mainly  from  Boston, 
conquered  Acadia.  When  peace  was  made  three  years  later, 
the  French  gave  up  their  claim  to  the  country.  The  English 
changed  its  name  to  Nova  Scotia,  and  called  its  capital  Annap- 
oHs  instead  of  Port  Royal.  For  a  long  time  few  EngHshmen 
cared  to  emigrate  to  Nova  Scotia  and  the  colony  remained 
French,  though  ruled  by  Enghsh  officers. 

The  French  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  —  While  the  English 
were  slowly  advancing  upon  the  French  from  the  north  and 
the  east,  that  is,  from  the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay  and  from 
Nova  Scotia,  the  French  strengthened  their  hold  on  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  especially  at  its  southern  end  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

The  man  who  won  fame  in  this  enterprise  was  Pierre  le 
Moyne,  commonly  known  as  Iberville.  He  had  led  the 
French  against  the  English  on  the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay. 
Now,  in  the  interval  between  King  William's  War  and  Queen 
Anne's  War,  with  a  little  fleet  of  four  vessels,  having  on  board 
200  colonists  and  soldiers,  he  sailed  from  France  in  search  of 
the  Mississippi.  Iberville  was  a  great  admirer  of  La  Salle 
and  resolved  to  push  forward  the  work  which  La  Salle  had 


FRENCH   IN   THE    MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY         107 

begun.  In  March,  1699,  he  discovered  the  Mississippi  and 
rowed  up  its  waters  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River. 
Tonty,  one  of  La  Salle's  men,  who  since  his  leader's  death 
had  remained  at  Fort  St.  Louis  on  the  Illinois  River,  soon 
learned  of  the  successful  attempt  of  the  French  to  take 
possession  of  the  region  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  sent  messages  and  advice  to  them. 


rortagt-'s  indicated  thus:««»» 

Map  of  Portages  in  New  France  and  the  Illinois  Country 

The  rivers  and  lakes,  with  their  portages,  were  the  highways  for  the 

missionaries,  fur  traders,  and  explorers 

The  English  Peril  again.  —  Before  the  year  was  out  a 
French  party  floating  down  the  river  suddenly  came  upon  an 
EngHsh  sixteen-gun  ship  a  few  miles  below  where  New  Orleans 
now  stands.  This  ship  had  been  sent  out  by  one  of  the 
proprietors  of  CaroKna  to  found  settlements  which  should 
protect  the  western  part  of  the  region  which  the  CaroKna 
proprietors  supposed  they  owned.  In  the  grants  to  pro- 
prietors or  companies  the  English  kings  had  usually  said  that 
their  lands  extended  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.      Never- 


io8  THE    FRENCH    RIVALS 

theless,  the  captain  of  the  ship  was  persuaded  not  to  attempt 

a  settlement,  the  French  telling  him  that  they  had  a  large 

force  estabHshed  farther  up  the  river. 

A  year  later  another  party  of  Frenchmen  discovered  an 

English   trader  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas  River.     He 

also  was  from  Carolina, 
one  of  those  who  with  pack 
horses  were  making  their 
way  over  the  low  southern 
ranges  of  the  Appalachian 
barrier  and  trying  to  estab- 
Hsh  a  trade  in  furs  with 
the  Indians,  even  with  the 
Ruins  of  Old  Kaskaskia  tribes  beyond  the  southern 

From  a  recent  photograph  Mississippi.        The    rOUte 

was  long  and  perilous  and  the  French  were  in  no  great  danger 
from  this  quarter. 

French  Settlements  on  the  Mississippi.  —  As  the  new  cen- 
tury began  the  French  were  busily  establishing  settlements 
up  and  down  the  great  valley.  They  extended  from  Cahokia 
and  Kaskaskia  in  the  Illinois  country  to  Mobile  on  the  coast. 
In  1 718  Bienville,  Iberville's  brother,  founded  New  Orleans 
on  a  plain  which  was  fairly  dry,  though  surrounded  by  marshes. 
An  embankment,  or  levee,  was  built  around  the  little 
settlement  to  protect  it  from  river  floods.  Already  the 
settlements  of  the  Illinois  country  had  been  placed  under  the 
governor  of  the  new  colony  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 
New  Orleans  became  the  chief  market,  being  much  more  easily 
reached  than  Montreal  or  Quebec.  The  men  of  the  Illinois 
country  loaded  their  furs,  flour,  and  pork  on  wide,  flat  barges 
and  floated  down  to  New  Orleans.  The  journey  homeward 
was  much  more  difflcult,  hundreds  of  miles  against  the  cur- 
rent. They  took  back  sugar,  rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  articles 
from  France. 


QUESTIONS    AND    EXERCISES 


109 


By  the  close  of  the  first  two  or  three  decades  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  it  looked  as  if  the  French  had  outstripped  the 
English. in  the  discovery  and  occupation  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  the  broadest  and  richest  region  within  what  is  now 
the  United  States.     The  question  was,  could  they  hold  it? 


New  Orleans  in  17 18 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  was  it  so  long  after  the  early  settlement  of  America  before  the 
rivalry  of  the  French  and  English  became  keen?  Where  did  the  two  peoples 
first  come  into  conflict?     Why? 

2.  How  did  the  French  found  colonies  in  America? 

3.  What  rights  had  French  seigniors  over  the  colonists  on  their  lands? 

4.  What  part  did  the  Jesuits  and  traders  have  in  the  spread  of  French 
settlements? 

5.  Why  did  France  have  difficulty  in  obtaining  farmers  to  cultivate  the  soil 
of  Canada?  How  did  the  wood-rangers  live?  In  what  two  ways  did  the 
French  people  carry  on  the  fur  trade  with  the  Indians? 

6.  W^hat  French  minister  was  much  interested  in  the  French  colonies? 
What  did  he  instruct  the  manager  or  intendant  of  the  colonies  to  do? 

7.  Why  did  the  English  form  the  Hudson  Bay  Company?  What  was  the 
outcome  of  the  struggle  between  the  French  in  Canada  and  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company? 

8.  Why  did  both  the  French  and  the  English  try  to  win  the  friendship  of 
the  Iroquois?    Which  succeeded? 

9.  What  change  took  place  in  England  in  1688? 

10.   What  part  had  the  Indians  in  the  border  wars  between  the  French  and 
the  English? 


no 


THE    FRENCH    RIVALS 


II.   What  colony  did  the  EngHsh  take  from  the  French  by  conquest  in  the 
war  ending  in  1713?    What  name  did  the  EngHsh  give  the  conquered  colony? 

12.  What  new  colony  had  the  French  just  founded, 
making  up  for  the  loss  of  Acadia?  Who  had  attempted 
before  Iberville  to  found  a  colony  on  the  lower 
Mississippi?  What  signs  were  there  that  the  French 
settlements  on  the  Mississippi  were  not  entirely  safe 
from  attack? 

13.  How  extensive  were  the  French  settlements  in 
the  West?  How  did  the  Illinois  settlers  carry  on  trade 
with  those  at  New  Orleans?  Had  the  English  any 
foothold  in  the  Mississippi  Valley? 


EXERCISES 

1.  By  a  review  of  the  earlier  chapters  learn  about 
land  owners  who  had  rights  somewhat  similar  to 
those  of  the  seigniors  in  Canada. 

2.  By  use  of  the  map,  page  107,  find  the  various 
waterways  by  which    the   French  could  travel  from 

French  Fur  Trader  Canada  to  their  settlements  in  the  jMississippi  Valley. 


Important  Dates: 

1688.   The  English  drive  James  II  from  the  throne. 

1 701.   The  French  begin  a  settlement  at  Detroit  within  what  is  now 

the  United  States. 
1 7 18.   The  founding  of  New  Orleans  by  the  French. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE   MAKING    OF    NEW    FRONTIERS 

The  Population  of  the  Colonies.  —  In  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  number  of  persons  in  the  colonies 
increased  steadily  and  rapidly.  By  1750  there  were  nearly 
a  million  and  a  half,  about  five  times  as  many  as  in  1700.  In 
some  parts  of  the  country,  in  New  England  for  example,  the 
increase  was  due  mainly  to  the  growth  of  famihes  which  had 
arrived  in  the  earHer  years  of  the  settlements.  Many  con- 
tained seven  or  eight  children,  who  left  the  old  home  to  help 
found  families  of  their  own.  In  other  parts  of  the  country  the 
native  famihes  increased  rapidly,  and  hundreds  of  emigrants 
from  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Europe,  or  from  the 
older  colonies,  arrived  to  swell  the  numbers. 

Beginnings  of  the  Westward  Movement.  —  The  first  settle- 
ments had  been  made  on  the  coast  or  on  the  banks  of  some 
bay  or  river,  at  a  place  which  sea-going  ships  might  reach. 
As  the  population  increased,  the  better  lands  were  soon  taken 
up,  and  newcomers  as  well  as  enterprising  young  men  and 
women  of  the  older  settlements  left  the  coast,  moved  farther 
up  the  rivers,  or  chmbed  the  foothills  of  the  great  Appa- 
lachian barrier.  New  frontiers  were  formed.  In  this  way 
began  the  westward  movement,  which  was  not  to  stop  until 
it  reached  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

German  and  Swiss  Emigrants.  —  Events  in  England  and 
Europe  continued  to  drive  many  persons  to  America.  Thou- 
sands emigrated  from  Germany  and  Switzerland.  Many 
of  them  were  Mennonites,  who,  hearing  that   the  Quakers 


112  THE   MAKING   OF   NEW   FRONTIERS 

were  prospering  in  Penn's  colony,  desired  to  enjoy  the  same 
liberties.  The  unwillingness  of  the  Swiss  Mennonites  to  bear 
arms  made  the  magistrates  of  the  Swiss  cities  ready  to  let 
them  go.     Indeed  they  forced  some  of  them  to  leave. 

The  "Poor  Palatines."  —  The  inhabitants  of  a  German  dis- 
trict along  the  Rhine  called  the  Palatinate  had  several  reasons 
.  for   desiring   to  find  a 

^«...,   ^"^P^^^"^^^^-  peaceful    refuge.      For 

THERE  fljil  remain  on  board  kKelhipAx,-rora  t_        j      j  ^i. 

fromAtnftcrdam,  about  18  paCfcngcrsTamongft      ^     hundred     years    the 

'^^T.T/^^     .A  V     u  ,  Rhine  country  had 

Servant  girls,  gardeners,   butchers,  mafons,  -^ 

fugar  bakers,  bread  bakers,  1  fhoemaker,  X  filver  been    ravaged    by    war. 

fmith,  I   leatLer  dreffer,  x  tobacconifV,  1  paflhry  r^          1             j       /^ 

coofe,  and  fome  a.  lirUe  acqadoiea  with  waiting  ^  ^^nch      and      German 

00  famiUes,  as  well  35  farming;  and  tendiDghoEfes,  armies  crosSCd   and   re- 

&c.    They  are  all  ia  good  heaJth.    Any  peirfoo  j       t.  • 

defirous  of  beiag  accomnaodated  In  the  above  CroSSed     thlS     region, 

'"^''"''''"""'c?p^"j^H8"Cwi.ES.       plundering   and   burn- 
in  tKe  ftream^  off  PeU's-Point:     inff.     Thousands   went 

Who  ojetj  fot  Sale,  ^^^      ,        ,     .        ^ 

80  Iton-lound  Water  Cafes  to   England   m    Queen 

ichcft  elegant  Fowling  «cccs,fmsleanddoii-    Anne's  time.     In  1710 

bk  barrelled  ' 

1^,000  Dtttcl)  Brick,  and  about    3,000     were 

^"Jui75!^^"''^**'^'  shipped  to  New  York, 

e  c  where    the    erovernor 

Advertisement  of  Servants  for  Sale  ° 

thought  they  could  be 
employed  in  making  tar  from  pine  trees.  When  this  experi- 
ment failed,  most  of  them  settled  in  the  Mohawk  Valley. 
Some  emigrated  later  to  Pennsylvania,  moving  down  the 
Susquehanna  from  New  York.  A  band  of  500  Palatines, 
with  a  party  of  Swiss,  went  to  North  CaroKna,  where  they 
named  their  principal  settlement  New  Berne  from  the  Swiss 
city  of  Berne. 

Other  German  Emigrants.  —  Many  reasons  besides  war 
and  religion  influenced  Germans  to  seek  a  home  in  America. 
Like  most  Europeans  they  were  divided  into  nobles,  citi- 
zens or  inhabitants  of  the  towns,  and  peasants  or  farmers. 
In  Europe  a  citizen  was  not  expected  to  become  a  peasant. 


GERMANS    AND    SCOTCH-IRISH  113 

even  if  he  preferred  farming  to  a  trade.  A  peasant  could 
not  become  a  citizen.  Indeed,  he  was  generally  obliged  to 
remain  on  the  Httle  farm  on  which  he  was  brought  up.  He 
must  pay  a  part  of  his  products  to  the  noble  who  was  lord  of 
the  community,  and  his  children  must  serve  for  a  time  as 
domestic  servants  in  the  '  noble's  family.  These  Germans 
had  reason  to  be  discontented  and  to  emigrate  to  a  country 
where  they  could  obtain '  land,  and  by  industry  and  thrift 
could  become  equal  to  any  of  their  neighbors. 

"  Newlanders."  —  When  the  shipowners  found  that  many 
persons  were  eager  to  go  to  America,  they  thought  they  could 
increase  their  profits  by  sending  men  about  to  tell  tales  of  the 
riches  each  person  could  easily  gain  there.  These  men  had 
generally  spent  a  short  time  in  the  colonies,  so  that  their 
tales  sounded  true.  They  praised  the  new  lands  so  much 
that  they  were  called  ''Newlanders."  They  were  also  called 
^'soul  stealers,"  because  they  frequently  cheated  the  poor 
emigrants. 

The  Pennsylvania  Germans.  —  Most  of  the  Germans  went 
to  Pennsylvania.  Sometimes  the  emigrants  who  arrived  at 
Philadelphia  in  a  single  year  numbered  6,000,  and  the  smallest 
number  was  267.  By  the  opening  of  the  Revolutionary  War 
over  100,000  Germans  lived  in  Pennsylvania  and  made  up 
more  than  a  third  of  the  population.  Some  of  the  frontier 
settlements  were  composed  almost  wholly  of  these  new- 
comers, differing  in  language  and  customs  from  those  of 
the  older  settlements.  From  Pennsylvania  many  Germans 
moved  southward  along  the  Appalachian  ridges  until  they 
reached  the  fertile  lands  of  the  beautiful  Shenandoah  Valley 
in  Virginia. 

Scotch-Irish.  —  Events  in  Great  Britain  also  caused 
emigration  to  America.  In  1715,  and  again  in  1745,  the 
heirs  of  King  James  II  tried  to  regain  the  throne,  but  were 
defeated.     The  Scotch  had  fought  loyally  for  these  princes. 


114 


THE   MAKING   OF   NEW   FRONTIERS 


called  the  ''Old  Pretender"  and  the  "Young  Pretender/' 
and  many  were  obliged  to  seek  refuge  in  America.  After 
1745  the  English  government  attempted  to  break  up  the 
Scottish  clans,  and  this  also  caused  the  Scotch  to  emigrate. 
During  the  same  period  many  Scotch-Irish  went  to  Amer- 
ica, because  the  Irish  woolen  industry  was  ruined  by  English 

laws  which  prevented 
the  export  of  Irish 
woolen  goods.  These 
persons  were  called 
Scotch-Irish  because 
they  had  emigrated 
originally  from  Scotland 
to  the  north  of  Ireland. 
The  Scotch-Irish  usually 
arrived  either  at  Phila- 
delphia, Newcastle,  or 
Charleston.  Like  the 
Germans,  they  settled 
on  the  frontier  beyond 
the  older  settlements. 
Many  settled  in  central 
Pennsylvania  and 
moved  southward  up 
the  Shenandoah  Valley 
and  even  into  North 
Carolina.  Others,  who  entered  at  Charleston,  went  westward 
more  slowly  because  of  the  wide  belt  of  sandy  pine  barrens 
in  the  center  of  the  southern  states.  Some  of  them  in  time 
met  the  frontier  settlers  from  the  north  in  the  vaUeys  of  the 
Catawba  and  the  Yadkin.  It  was  not  long  before  the 
foremost  emigrants  were  pushing  westward  into  the  valleys 
sloping  into  Tennessee.  Among  those  who  came  from  Penn- 
sylvania was  the  father  of  Daniel  Boone. 


tf''^"   ^iSOUTrf 

Oraiiffeburff-Q:.  ^ 

X  VitAkoiliNAW^  The  dots  and  crosses  represenl 

<^''x'\6'E°iL«ri5''^'"''"'°"  frontier  regions  in  1775  where 

'  ^■^^^^^Sa.^cLn^ah  German  and  Scotch-Irish  hcd 

'f<f''</      "  settled  in  large  numbers. 


Where  the  German  and  Scotch-Irish 
Emigrants  Settled 


"  NATURALIZATION  "  115 

Scotch-Irish  people  formed  fully  a  third  of  the  settlers  of 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  North  Carolina,  and  a  half  of 
South  Carolina.  German  and  Scotch-Irish  emigrants  soon 
filled  the  back  country  with  Httle  settlements.  Their  eyes 
were  ever  turned  toward  newer  lands  beyond  the  ridges 
which  hemmed  them  in.  They  were  the  first  to  bear  the 
brunt  of  Indian  attacks  and  were  ready  to  struggle  with  the 
Indian  for  the  possession  of  his  hunting  grounds. 

This  Indenture  made  the^.^^CL/.^wt^'E'ayof^.y 

in  the  Yea^K  orotrt  Lord  one  choufand,  fevcn  hundred  and.  ^.-oj^i^^^^^/^^^tTWEEN 

"WITNESSETH,  tharihe  iz.\Q^i^dLa^/J^Jca^  ^  doth  hereby  covenant,  promifc 

and  grant,  to  and  with  the  faid/^t^n.  Qs/^lc ^^^ A-^ -^ Executors, 

Adminiftratpj&^nd  Aflign?t  from  the  Pay  of  the  Date  hereof  until  the  firft  and  next 
Arrival  at  ^p%i^'<x^'^'-'^n-^ C'^*-^  — in  America,  and  after  for  and  during  the  Term 

of  s'^^TCb.    Years  X.Q  ferve  m  fuch  Service  and  Employment  as  the  laid 

r^,ri$p^^o^Uc/ or  /^Afllgnefhall  there  employ  Xie>^cordinyp  the 

^"Xaftom  of  the  Country  ia  the  like  Kind.     In  Confideration  -whereof  the  ^^^%^^^ 

(/^ble^^^^^4^ doth  hereby  covenant  and  grant  to  and  with  the  ia^^j^cia/' 

^^jjcc^^  to  pa-y  "for  /4.^^/Pafl^e,  and  to  find  aJlowy^^^^Meat,  Drink,  Apparel 
and  Lodging,  with  other  Neceflaries,  during  the  laid  Term  j  and  at  the  End  of  the  laid 
Term  to  pay  unto  >C7^  the  ufual  Allowance,  according  to  the  Cuftom  of  the  Country 
in  the  like  Kmd.  IN  WITNESS  whereof  the  Parties  ahove-mentioned  to  thefe 
Indentures  have  interchangeably  put  their  Hands  and  Seals,  the  Day  and  Year  £ift 
above  written.  _•  ^     '^     ^  / 


Signed,  Sealed,  and  Delivered, 
the  Pi£ fence  of 


A  Redemptioner's  Indenture 

Redemptioners.  —  Many  of  those  who  arrived  in  the  colo- 
nies would  not  have  been  able  to  come  had  not  some  one  lent 
them  the  money.  Often  they  agreed  to  work  a  certain  num- 
ber of  years  in  return  for  it.  In  this  case  they  were  called 
''indentured  servants,"  as  at  Jamestown,  or  quite  as  often 
''redemptioners,"  because  they  expected  to  redeem  or  free 
themselves  by  work.  Many  were  cheated  in  making  such 
bargains  with  the  "soul  stealers,"  who  turned  them  over  to 


ii6  THE   MAKING    OF   NEW   FRONTIERS 

ship  captains.  When  the  vessel  reached  the  colonies,  the  cap- 
tains sold  them  to  a  contractor,  who  took  them  to  regions  in 
want  of  laborers,  and  sold  them  to  the  farmers.  Fortunately 
the  farmer-masters  were  generally  kind,  and  taught  the 
newcomer  the  things  that  he  would  need  to  know  when  he 
should  become  a  farmer  on  his  own  account. 

When  the  Years  of  Service  were  over.  —  At  the  end  of 
the  years  of  service  the  indentured  servant  or  redemptioner 
became  free.  He  received  a  gift  from  his  former  master  — • 
clothing,  wheat  for  seed,  and  a  pig  or  calf  for  his  future  farm. 
The  colony  usually  gave  him  a  tract  of  land.  The  women 
received  clothing.  In  this  way  by  a  few  years  of  labor  a 
man  or  woman,  and  even  a  boy  or  girl,  became  a  free  and 
prosperous  colonist  in  the  new  country. 

"Naturalization."  —  One  difficulty  seemed  to  hinder  per- 
sons who  were  not  subjects  of  the  king  of  England  from 
settling  in  the  colonies.  Governments  at  that  time  did  not 
acknowledge  that  their  subjects  could  become  citizens  of 
another  country.  Once  a  German,  or  once  a  Frenchman, 
always  a  German  or  a  Frenchman.  But  governments,  like 
men  and  women,  sometimes  do  not  keep  their  own  rules. 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  often  invited  the  subjects  of 
other  kings  to  become  his  subjects.  The  English  parlia- 
ment did  the  same,  and  passed  acts  which  are  now  called 
Naturalization  Laws.  These  laws  said  that  foreigners  who 
lived  in  the  colonies  for  seven  years  should  have  the  same 
rights  as  the  native-born  subjects  of  the  English  king.  They 
could  hold  any  office  except  those  which  the  government  itself 
filled.  The  assemblies  of  the  colonies  sometimes  made  the 
time  of  residence  shorter.  Parhament  also  did  that,  for  it 
voted  to  naturalize  the  United  Brethren  or  Moravians  before 
they  left  Europe. 

The  English  and  the  Spaniards.  —  The  Spaniards  in  Flor- 
ida watched  jealously  the  increase  of  the  settlements  in  the 


FOUNDING   OF    GEORGIA 


117 


Carolinas.  They  persuaded  their  Indian  allies  to  attack  the 
English.  .  The  English  in  turn  attacked  the  Spaniards  or 
sent  their  own  Indian  allies  against  them. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  the  inhabitants  of  South  Carohna 
were  glad  when  they  heard  that  a  new  colony  was  to  be  estab- 
lished between  their  settlements  and  Florida.  In  1732 
James  Oglethorpe  and  his  friends  in  England  obtained  the 
right  to  found  a  colony  south  of  the  Savannah  River.    They 


King's  liExcH  Prison,  London,  for  Poor  Debtors  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century 

gave  the  name  Georgia  to  the  territory  in  honor  of  George  II, 
who  was  then  king  of  England. 

Oglethorpe^s  Plan  to  aid  the  Poor  Debtors.  —  Oglethorpe 
was  interested  in  any  plan  to  help  the  poor.  In  those  days 
the  EngHsh  law  allowed  a  creditor  to  send  to  jail  any  one 
who  owed  him  and  could  not  pay  the  debt.  The  jails  were 
horrible  places,  filthy,  and  overrun  with  vermin,  where 
prisoners  held  for  all  sorts  of  crimes  were  herded  together. 
The  jailer  was  often  cruel  and  cheated  his  prisoners,  if  he 
did  not  torture  them.     There  was  little  chance  that  a  poor 


ii8 


THE    MAKING   OF   NEW   FRONTIERS 


debtor  once  sent  to  such  a  place  would  live  to  get  out.  Ogle- 
thorpe thought  it  better  to  send  such  persons  to  America 
where  they  might  start  anew.  He  chose  as  the  motto  of 
the  colony,  ''Not  for  self,  but  for  others."  He  expected  no 
gain  for  himself;  indeed,  he  used  his  own  money  to  further 
the  enterprise. 

Founding  of  Georgia.  —  Oglethorpe  went  to  Georgia  in 
1733.  He  was  accompanied  by  35  poor  famihes,  selected 
out  of  a  large  number  wilHng  to  go.     They  went  up   the 


{Darien  O 

'j  Frederica  ^ 

-ensacola     S  r'aTn  1  S  H  S.ar.p^^^]^Ft.WvlUam    -^ 

T  TfL  E  M  E    NTS        ''^:]:^-^ 


Settlements  in  Georgia 
This  map  shows  the  size  of  the  original  grant  of  Georgia  in  1732 


Savannah  River  about  ten  miles  and  began  a  town  which 
they  called  Savannah,  using  the  Indian  name  of  the  river. 
Like  William  Penn  and  Roger  Williams,  Oglethorpe  first 
made  peace  with  the  Indians,  buying  the  land  from  them. 
Savannah  was  laid  out  with  broad  streets  and  large  parks. 
Fifty  acres  of  land  were  given  to  each  family.  Oglethorpe 
received  aid  from  the  English  government  and  from  wealthy 
friends  in  buying  arms,  farm  tools,  seed,  and  suppHes.  The 
people  of  South  CaroKna  sent  loo  head  of  cattle,  a  drove  of 
hogs,  a  flock  of  sheep,  and  20  barrels  of  rice.  Several  went 
to  Savannah  with  their  servants  to  aid  the  new  colony  in 
building  houses.     Everything  seemed  hopeful. 


QUESTIONS    AND    EXERCISES 


119 


The  Troubles  of  Georgia.  —  Poor  men  who  could  not  make 
a  living  in  England  were  not  well  fitted  for  the  hardships  of 
a  new  country.  Others  came,  but  progress  was  slow.  The 
colonists  complained  because  they  were  not  allowed  at  first 
to  hold  slaves,  like  the  South  Carolinians.  They  were  ham- 
pered also  by  the  size  of  the  farms,  which  were  too  small  to 
be  treated  as  plantations. 
In  1734  some  industrious 
Germans  entered  the  colony, 
and  two  years  later  a  band 
of  Scotch  Highlanders.  Un- 
fortunately the  colony  was 
soon  troubled  by  Spanish 
attacks,  especially  after  Eng- 
land declared  war  on  Spain 
for  cruelly  treating  EngHsh 
sailors  caught  smuggling  in 
the  West  Indies.  In  1743 
Oglethorpe  returned  to  Eng- 
land discouraged.  Nine 
years  later  he  and  his  friends  gave  up  their  rights  in  the 
colony,  which  then  came  directly  under  control  of  the  king. 
A  small  trading  station  at  Augusta,  far  inland  on  the  Savannah 
River,  gave  the  Georgians  a  share  in  the  fur  trade  with  the 
Indians.  Georgia  remained  during  the  colonial  period  the 
smallest  and  weakest  of  the  colonies. 


Contemporary  Portrait  Showing 

Costume  of  German  man  and 

Woman 


QUESTIONS 

1.  How  many  people  were  there  in  the  English  colonies  by  1750?  What 
was  the  chief  way  in  which  New  England  increased  in  population  after  the  first 
settlement?  What  large  bodies  of  emigrants  swelled  the  numbers  in  the  other 
colonies? 

2.  Why  did  men  leave  the  older  settlements  for  the  frontier?  What  name 
is  given  in  American  history  to  the  constant  movement  of  settlers  toward  the 
frontier? 

3.  Why  did  the  Germans,  the  Scotch,  and  the  Scotch-Irish  come  to  America 


I20  THE    MAKING    OF    NEW    FRONTIERS 

in   the  eighteenth  century?       What  part  had  the  Newlanders    in   securing 
emigrants  for  America? 

4.  Where  did  the  Germans  settle?     The  Scotch-Irish? 

5.  Who  were  the  defenders  of  the  frontier  from  Indian  attacks? 

6.  How  could  poor  boys  and  girls  get  to  America?     What  became  of  the 
indentured  servants  when  their  time  was  up? 

7.  How  did  foreigners  become  naturalized  citizens  of  the  English  colonies? 

8.  What  was  Oglethorpe's  plan  for  aiding  English  debtors?     Why  did  the 
people  of  South  Carolina  welcome  neighbors  and  help  them? 

9.  Why  did  Georgia  grow  slowly?     Who  took  Oglethorpe's  place  as  head  of 
the  colony? 

EXERCISES 

1,  Can  people  without  money  enough  to  pay  for  their  passage  come  to 
America  now?     (Any  recent  immigrant  can  answer.) 

2.  How  can  a  foreigner  become  a  naturalized  citizen  today? 

REVIEW 

Founding  of  the  English  Colonies 

1607.  The  Virginia  Company  founds  a  colony  at  Jamestown. 

1620.  The  Pilgrims  settle  at  Plymouth. 

1630.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Company  founds  a  colony  at  Boston  and 
at  other  places  on  Massachusetts  Bay. 

1634.    Baltimore  starts  a  settlement  at  St.  Mary's. 

1636.   Emigrants  from  Massachusetts  begin  the  towns  of  Connecticut. 

1636.  Roger  Williams  and  other  exiles  from  Massachusetts  found  settle- 
ments in  Rhode  Island. 

1638.    Puritans  from  England  found  a  colony  at  New  Haven. 

1665.  The  proprietors  of  New  Jersey  begin  the  active  settlement  of  a  new 
colony.  Earher  settlers  had  established  themselves  at  various 
places. 

1670.  The  proprietors  of  the  Carolinas  found  Charleston,  though  not  the 
first  settlement  in  the  Carolinas. 

1681.  Penn  sends  a  body  of  Quakers  to  Pennsylvania.  Philadelphia  founded 
in  1682. 

1733.   Oglethorpe  begins  a  settlement  at  Savannah,  Georgia. 


CHAPTER  XII 

HOW   THE    COLONISTS    LIVED 

Changes  in  Manner  of  Living.  —  As  the  colonists  increased 
in  number  the  principal  settlements  changed  in  appearance. 
Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  a  few  other  places 
began  to  resemble  EngUsh  cities.  The  well-to-do  built 
houses  much  Hke  those  which  were  being  built  by  Ihe  Lou- 


Home  OF  A  Prosperous  Colonist  in  the  South 

don  merchants  of  the  time.  Some  of  them  are  still  standing.^ 
The  cities,  however,  were  small,  Philadelphia,  the  largest, 
having  only  20,000  inhabitants. 

On  the  new  frontier  the  settlers  lived  like  the  first  inhabi- 
tants   of    Plymouth    or    Jamestown.     They  hunted,  fished, 

^  Houses  built  in  that  style  of  architecture  are  called  colonial.  In  Eng- 
land they  are  called  Georgian,  because  built  in  the  time  of  King  George  I  or 
George  II.  The  English  Georgian  houses  were  commonly  of  brick,  while  the 
colonial  houses  were  often  of  wood. 


122 


HOW   THE    COLONISTS    LIVED 


and  raised  a  few  articles  of  food.  Some  of  them  were  busied 
with  the  fur  trade,  which  was  no  longer  carried  on  in  the 
older  settlements. 

Differences  between  the  Colonies.  —  The  colonies  also 
differed  from  one  another,  because  of  differences  in  climate 
or  in  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  South  Carolina  rice,  and 
later  indigo  and  cotton,  could  be  raised.  In  Virginia  the 
main  crop  was  tobacco.     Both  rice  and  tobacco  were  usually 


Colonial  or  Georgian  House 

cultivated  on  large  plantations.  Farther  north  the  soil  and 
climate  were  not  suited  to  such  crops.  The  land  was  divided 
into  small  farms,  and  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  beans  were 
raised.  The  farmers  lived  in  villages.  In  the  South  the 
people  were  not  usually  grouped  in  villages,  except  that  the 
cabins  of  servants  or  slaves  stood  not  far  from  the  planter's 
house. 

What  the  Colonists  did  not  have.  —  Many  things  now 
considered  necessary,  such  as  matches,  kerosene,  gas,  elec- 
tricity, and  telephones,  the  colonists  did  not  have.  Neither 
did  the  Europeans  of  that  time  have  them,  for  they  had  not 


FARMING   IN   THE    COLONIES 


123 


been  invented.  The  ordinary  settlers  were  without  many 
things  then  common  in  Europe,  but  the  planters  and  mer- 
chants often  lived  like  well-to-do  Europeans. 

Open  fire-places  served  for  both  heating  and  cooking. 
Fires  were  carefully  banked  with  ashes  to  keep  them  from 
going  out,  for  if  they  went  out  the  settler  would  be  obliged 
to  seek  live  coals  at  the  house  of  a  neighbor.  Churches 
were   not  heated.     People   sometimes   carried  foot-warmers 


"^liliifCr-Jai*?^  ^-'^ 


s^.f£pM^T^^^^ 


^?'— 


A  Colonial  Kitchen  Fire-Place 


to  church  and  kept  on  their  hats,  great-coats,  and  mittens 
during  the  service. 

The  better  houses  were  lighted  by  candles;  in  the  others 
pine-knot  torches  were  used.  Frequently  the  Kght  from  the 
fire-place  was  enough.  Rich  people  had  lamps  in  which 
sperm  oil  was  burned.  These  were  lighted  only  on  impor- 
tant occasions. 

Farming  in  the  Colonies.  —  The  colonists  were  mostly 
farmers  or  planters.  Methods  of  farming  used  nowadays 
were  unheard  of  even  in  Europe.     The  EngHsh  or  European 


124  HOW    THE    COLONISTS    LIVED 

farmer  managed  his  land  as  his  forefathers  had  for  a  thou- 
sand years.  He  knew  that  land,  Hke  everything  else,  wore 
out.  He  did  not  understand  of  what  elements  soils  are  com- 
posed, and  what  must  be  put  into  them  each  year  in  order 
to  obtain  large  crops.  He  tried  to  keep  the  land  in  good 
condition  by  allowing  it  to  lie  uncultivated  or  fallow  every 
third  year,  beheving  that  it  would  rest  and  regain  its  strength. 
He  tried  what  is  called  rotation  of  crops,  that  is,  planting 
different  crops,  as  the  years  came  around,  on  the  same  piece 
of  land.  But  he  did  not  understand,  as  does  the  farmer  of 
today,  what  crops  serve  this  purpose  best. 


Wooden  Plow,  Harrow,  and  Fork 

Settlers  in  America  had  one  advantage — ^  there  was  plenty 
of  land.  After  a  field  became  worn  out  they  could  plow  up 
another,  or  move  to  a  region  where  the  soil  was  rich.  The 
crops  raised  in  the  North  did  not  exhaust  the  soil  quickly, 
but  planters  in  the  South  discovered  that  new  fields  must 
often  be  found  for  tobacco. 

Farming  tools  were  simple  and  rude.  Machinery  had  not 
been  invented.  The  plow,  mostly  of  wood,  scratched  a 
shallow  furrow.  A  scythe  or  even  a  sickle  was  used  to  harvest 
grain.  Threshing  was  done  by  a  hand-flail  or  by  the  treading  of 
horses  or  oxen  on  a  hard  floor.  After  the  grain  was  beaten 
from  the  stalk,  it  was  thrown  into  the  air  against  the  wind 
to  blow  out  the  chaff,  and  was  finally  passed  through  sieves. 

Plantations.  —  Farming  on  the  great  plantations  of  the 
South  was  very  different.     Some  plantations  contained  many 


COLONIAL   INDUSTRIES 


125 


thousand  acres.  The  work  of  plowing,  planting,  hoeing,  and 
gathering  tobacco  was  done  at  first  by  indentured  servants. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  done  mostly  by  slaves.  As 
slaves  were  ignorant,  an  overseer  for  every  twenty  negroes  was 
necessary.  The  profits  were  often  large.  A  few  planters  are 
said  to  have  made  the  great 
sum  of  £20,000  to  £80,000  a 
year.  But  the  method  was 
ruinous,  because  no  attempt 
was  made  to  put  back  into  the 
soil  what  the  tobacco  plants 
were  steadily  taking  out.  After 
a  time  the  fields  were  ''dead." 
Rice  growing  on  the  planta- 
tions of  South  CaroHna  was 
not  so  profitable,  because  ex- 
penses were  greater.  Low,  wet 
fields  were  needed,  and  the 
laborer  must  often  stand  in  water  or  mud.  The  sun  was 
hot,  and  malaria  was  a  common  disease.  If  slaves  sickened 
and  died,  planters  lost  heavily.  In  the  Piedmont  region  of 
the  South  the  farms  were  often  small,  and  the  crops  like 
those  raised  in  the  North. 


Spinning  Wheel  and  Colonial 
Loom 


Carrying  Tobacco  to  the  Wharf  in  Virginia 

Colonial  Industries,  r—  Much  was  done  on  farms  and  plan- 
tations besides  raising  crops.     Clothing,  utensils,  and  house- 


126 


HOW   THE    COLONISTS    LIVED 


hold  supplies  must  be  prepared.  The  farmer's  house  was 
a  workshop.  Roads  were  few  and  poor.  Rivers  and  the 
ocean  were  the  natural  highways.  Little  trade  went  on  be- 
tween the  settlements.  This  was  not  the  only  reason  for 
household  industries.     In  England  and  Europe  many  trades 

were  still  carried  on  in  homes 
or  in  shops  connected  with 
them.  There  were  no  fac- 
tories, for  machinery  and 
power  to  run  it  had  not  been 
invented.  The  English 
weaver  got  his  thread  or  yarn 
r  from  merchants,  wove  cloth 
at  home,  and  sold  it  to  the 
Tinder  Box,  Flint,  and  Steel  ^lerchant.  This  was  called 
the  ''domestic  system."  In  the  colonies  the  women  spun  the 
yarn,  wove  the  cloth,  and  cut  and  finished  the  clothing  for 
their  families.  Spinning  wheels  were  found  in  every  home. 
In  Massachusetts  in  1656  every  family  was 
required  by  law  to  teach  its  girls  to  spin. 
Each  woman  was  expected  to  spin  three 
pounds  of  yarn,  cotton  or  wool,  every  week 
for  thirty  weeks  of  the  year.  If  she  failed 
she  might  be  fined. 

Men  made  many  things  with  ax  and 
jack-knife.  Plows  and  harrows  were 
mostly  of  wood.  Boys  whittled  butter 
paddles  for  the  dairy,  or  box  traps  and 
"figure-four"  traps  for  catching  animals. 

Many  things  which   the  planter  needed   Mould  for  mak- 
were  made  by  slaves,  but  other  things  he 
obtained   in  exchange   for  his  rice  or  tobacco.     The  ships 
which  came  from  England  for  these  brought  costly  clothing, 
crockery,  pictures,  and  furniture.     The  northern  settler  had 


RESTRICTIONS    ON   THE    COLONISTS 


127 


little  to  send  to  England  in  exchange  for  such  things  except 
lumber  and  ship  timber.  At  first  he  had  furs  to  seU.  To 
obtain  what  he  wanted  he  must  become  a  trader  or  manu- 
facture things  himself. 

England  and  Colonial  Industries.  —  After  a  time  men  as 
well  as  women  engaged  in  weaving  cloth.     They  began  to 
make    goods    of    finer     quahty. 
These    were    sold    not   only    in 
settlements  near  by,  but  also  in  Annoqcinto, 

the    South    and    m    the    West 
Indies.      The  Enghsh  merchants     GcOVgll  11.  RcglS. 

became    alarmed,    fearing    that  — 

they  would  be  unable  to  sell 
their  goods  to  the  colonists.  A 
governor  of  New  York  wrote  to 
the  officials  in  England  that 
he  had  '^seen  serge  made  upon 
Long  Island  that  any  man  may 
wear."  The  EngHsh  parUament, 
taking  the  side  of  the  EngHsh- 
cloth-makers  and  merchants, 
passed  a  ''Woolen  Act,"  which 
forbade  woolen  goods  to  be  sent 
from  one  colony  to  another  or 
even  from  one  town  to  another. 

The  attempts  of  the  northern 
colonies    to   make    beaver    hats 

were  treated  in  the  same  way.  The  colonists  had  an  advan- 
tage over  the  English  hatters,  because  beaver  fur  came  from 
the  colonies.  Hats  made  in  New  England  and  New  York 
were  shipped  as  far  as  Spain.  English  hatters,  hke  the  cloth- 
makers,  appealed  to  parliament,  which  rephed  by  ordering 
that  no  hats  should  be  sent  by  the  colonists  from  one  place 
to  another  and  offered  for  sale  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  £500. 


An  Aft  to  prevent  the  Exportation  of  Hats  ovit 
of  any  of  His  Mijefty's  Colonies  or  Plaauti- 
ons  in  America,  and  to  reftrain  the  Number 
of  Apprentices  taken  by  the  Hat-xnakers  in, 
the-faid  Colonies  or  Plantations,  and  for  the 
better  encouraging  ^e  making  Hats  in  Gr^ot 
Britain. 


1^<£^<£^^  m  artflitaqsjfte' 

rp  of  maUir.8  ?)atg  in  Grtat  Bri- 
I  (ain  tati)  arrfvjeb  to  great  ^et« 
ftsfan,  nut  confitjetablt  iP.uaiu 
tftfcj}  of  VatjB  menufaauMt)  la 
t))i«  Jftingtiom  %soi  ocretofojt 
brm  crpojttc  to  J!>fS  cpaJcC-/^ 
J3TmtatloB£(  0)  eoiojittg  fn  A- 
iwcrica.  loja  58«e  t)«a  bi^ll^ 
fiipplifB  ttftb  ipatg  from  Gie»t 
'  Britain  ;  anTJ  febeccojg  great 
Siuantttfes  of  i!»fS  6aue  of  late-  ^rars  *ffn.  maur, 
etiTJ  tJ)e  fafD  -^anufaautc  W  tstlg  Incceatlnj  M  tfje 
Britillv  plsnrattond  ta  Ameica,  cnt  \i  tVom  tl)ctice  ec« 
|ioit«^  to  fo?e(Bn  93atfeci3,  xMi^mct  fjtcetofoje  to- 
niitti  from  Great  BTiuin,  anfl  t|)e  t)at-tnaluro  hi  tlw 
WO  Blontationd  taic  mani;  appKn'-icfs  foj  fiesg  Dnall 
orecina,  to  the  DtftoucaaimiiTit  cf  m  &10  "tTrafle,  anU 
iKftafms  tbe  &iD  Sganuraawe ;  Olftectfoje  ta\  pjc 
5  c  Jbentlng 

Part  of  the  Act  forbidding 
SENDING  Hats  away 

Reduced  facsimile 


128  HOW   THE    COLONISTS   LIVED 

The  Shoe  and  Leather  Trade.  —  The  shoe  and  leather 
trade  fared  better.  The  Massachusetts  government  made 
laws  to  prevent  the  waste  of  hides.  Shoe-makers  who  came 
from  England  taught  the  farmers  to  make  shoes.  The  farmer 
spent  part  of  the  long  winter  days  in  making  shoes  for  his 
family,  but  other  men'  gave  all  their  time  to  making  shoes 
_  for  sale.     Soon  after  Lynn  was 

settled  it  had  many  shoe-makers, 
Anno  Yicefimo  tertio  Working  in  their   homes   or   in 

VJCUigli  XX.  xvcgia.    Massachusetts  were  sold  in  the 

_ —    other    colonies.      The    English 

An  Aa  to  encourage  the  impomtioa  of  Kg    govemmcnt    did   not    interfere 

and  Bar  Iron  from  His  Majefty  s  Colonies  in  .^^:  4-1,    f }, ,  c    f  ra  rl  P 

America;  and  to  prevent  the  Ereftion  of  ^ ^^^^    ^^^^^    Lxauc. 

any  Mill  or  other  Engine  for  Slitting  or  o^l,      t-         Tnr!iic+rv  Anr.fV.f^r 

Rolling  of  Iron;  or  anyPkteiog  Forge  to.  ^ne  llOn  inQUSiry.         /inomer 

work  with  a  Tilt  Hammer;  or  anyPurnace  j.        i           !,•    i      i.T_       -r>       ^'  ^              ^• 

for  making  Steelin  any  of  the  iaid  Colonies.  trade  WhlCll   the   Eughsh   parlia- 

;^crea^ttc3!mPQjtationcf«ar   meut  was  wilKng  to  permit  to 

■  Ston  ftom  ^ia  sgajrtlD'fi  <£roio- 

T^.'^rmZZS'  some    extent   was    the   making 

flon  of  ^p^fl;3Itcn  fWm  tfie  iaio         ^  .  ^ni         r       i    c  t 

fioronicar,  into  anj  ipo^t  of  Qi  irou.     i  uc  urst  lumaces  used 

Great  Britain,    anti    tje  <^ahlj< 

Sria°L^3?^.,«agl  ore  known  as  ^'bog  iron,"  found 

great   aotiantase ,  tiot  onft  to     , 

Zmn^XtAt^t  m  swampy  regions.     Later  bet- 

anti  tietelftcg  cS-ommoDitp,  anb  62  ^ean*  tobereonatge     tCr  OrC  WaS   lOUUd   lU   tuC  hlUs  01 
feunta  of  <T^oMCB,  v<M  anmiang  ^)ai5  ft}  3tton  to  $q- 

aSe^^tSeSn^'S'Sr^SZu^^  Connecticut,  New  York,  Penn- 

6  p  »•  Grsat 

■D  A  sylvania,  and  Virginia.     English 

Part  of   the   Act   forbidding  /       .       ^  ^  ^ 

BUILDING  Iron  Mills   in  the  iron  manufacturers  were  glad  to 

Colonies  i  •      .  j.  ^i  i      •   i 

^  ,      , .    ...  buy  pig  iron  from  the  colonial 

Keduced  facsimile  j     r-  o 

furnaces,  for  otherwise  they 
must  buy  it  from  Swedes  and  Russians.  They  did  not  know 
what  rich  ores  existed  in  England.  Moreover,  they  did  not 
understand  how  to  use  coal  in  melting  the  ores,  and  their  sup- 
ply of  charcoal  was  running  low.  They  did  not,  however, 
wish  the  colonists  to  work  up  the  pig  iron  into  plates  or  tools 
of  iron  or  steel  which  could  be  sold  and  thus  lessen  the  sale 
of  their  own  products.     ParHament  thought  as  they  did  and 


THE    OLD    COLONIAL   SYSTEM  129 

forbade  the  colonists  to  set  up  any  iron  or  steel  mills  for 
such  purposes. 

Many  farmers,  especially  in  New  England,  made  nails  and 
tacks  and  simple  tools  to  sell  to  their  neighbors.  A  hammer, 
an  anvil,  and  a  small  furnace  in  the  chimney-corner  of  the 
living-room  formed  the  outfit  necessary  for  this,  which  was 
another  of  the  home  or  domestic  industries  of  colonial  times. 

Bounties  for  Naval  Stores.  —  While  the  English  govern- 
ment tried  to  keep  the  colonists  from  manufacturing  things 
already  made  in  England,  it  was  ready  to  pay  rewards  or 
bounties  on  every  ton  of  "naval  stores,"  or  material  for  use 
in  building  ships.  An  official  was  ordered  to  mark  trees 
suitable  for  use  in  the  navy.  The  bounty  on  turpentine 
was  profitable  to  the  Carolinas,  which  sent  60,000  barrels  to 
England  every  year.  Virginia  and  Maryland  sent  over  an- 
nually a  thousand  tons  of  hemp.  But  New  England  could 
not  raise  hemp  and  could  get  better  prices  for  her  lumber  in 
the  West  Indies  than  in  England. 

The  Old  Colonial  System.  —  Why  did  the  English  govern- 
ment attempt  to  say  to  the  colonists  what  they  should  make 
and  what   they   should   not  make?     Modern    governments 


Some  Hats  of  Colonial  Tiaees 

permit  the  people  of  their  colonies  to  manufacture  what  they 
please.  The  reason  lay  in  the  idea  that  the  EngHsh  govern- 
ment and  other  governments  in  the  eighteenth  century  had 
of  the  purpose  and  use  of  colonies.  EngHsh  officials  looked 
upon  a  colony  as  a  man  looks  upon  his  farm  or  garden.  He 
intends  that  its  different  parts  shall  furnish  him  the  various 
things  he  needs.  Cloth,  hats,  and  steel  produced  in  the  colo- 
nies were  not  needed  in  England,  while  tobacco,  rice,  and 


I30  HOW   THE    COLONISTS   LIVED 

naval  stores  were.  The  southern  colonies  were  fortunate  in 
offering  what  the  English  of  the  mother  country  were  will- 
ing to  take.  The  Enghsh  government  told  the  New  Eng- 
landers  and  the  other  northern  colonists  that  if  they  would  not 
furnish  naval  stores  they  at  least  should  not  do  what  the 
Enghshmen  at  home  wanted  to  do.  This  meant  that  English- 
men in  the  colonies  did  not  have  the  same  rights  as  English- 
men in  England.  In  other  words,  the  colonies  were  managed 
for  the  interests  of  English  merchants  and  shipowners  rather 
than  for  the  welfare  of  the  colonists. 

The  northern  colonists  disturbed  the  EngHsh  merchants 
and  shipowners  because  they  wished  to  become  traders.  The 
northern  coast  was  full  of  good  harbors.  Lumber  was  cheap. 
Men  living  near  the  ocean  are  always  incHned  to  become 
seamen.  The  profits  of  the  colonial  shipowners  were  seri- 
ously interfered  with  by  the  Navigation  Acts  which  were  first 
intended  to  injure  the  Dutch  traders.  A  long  Hst  of  articles, 
including  sugar  and  tobacco,  two  of  the  most  important  articles 
of  colonial  trade,  should,  the  Act  said,  be  taken  nowhere 
except  to  England.  The  colonial  traders  wished  to  take  these 
articles  not  only  to  England,  but  also  to  Europe,  where  they 
could  get  higher  prices.  If  Virginia  tobacco  was  landed  in 
England,  all  sorts  of  profits  and  dues  were  added  to  the  cost, 
and  the  European  was  obhged  to  pay  the  English  merchant 
more  than  he  had  to  pay  the  colonial  merchant.  The  English 
officials  saw  no  wrong  in  this,  for  if  the  mother  country 
could  gain  nothing  from  the  colonies,  why  should  she  have 
colonies?  Certainly  not  for  the  benefit  of  the  colonists. 
But  the  colonists  did  not  agree  with  the  English  officials. 
Many  of  the  ship-masters  paid  no  attention  to  the 
Navigation  Laws,  taking  both  sugar  and  tobacco  to  Europe. 
If  they  were  arrested  by  officers  sent  to  the  colonies  for 
that  purpose,  colonial  juries  usually  decided  that  they  were 
not  guilty. 


TRADE    WITH    THE    WEST    INDIES  131 

Trade  with  the  West  Indies. — The  northern  colonies  found 
trade  with  the  West  Indies  very  profitable.  Planters  in  Bar- 
bados, Jamaica,  and  other  Enghsh  islands,  gained  such  large 
profits  from  raising  sugar  that  they  did  not  take  time  to  raise 
food  or  cut  the  timber  they  needed.  They  preferred  to  buy 
such  things  of  the  Atlantic  coast  settlers.  Hundreds  of  ships 
went  from  New  England,  New  York,  and  the  Delaware 
River,  loaded  with  horses,  oxen,  sheep,  hogs,  fish,  corn,  peas, 
beans,  oats,  and  flour.  Planters  sometimes  bought  house- 
frames  all  ready  to  set  up,  and  staves  and  hoops  for  sugar 
barrels.  The  northern  ship-masters  took  in  return  sugar,  mo- 
lasses, and  usually  some  money.  The  money  they  found 
useful  in  buying  in  England  articles  which  were  not  made 
in  America. 

Colonial  Smuggling.  —  Colonial  traders  carried  on  a  sim- 
ilar trade  with  the  French  and  Spanish  West  Indies.  They 
found  this  more  profitable,  for  the  English  islands  taxed  their 
products  higher  than  the  French  islands,  and  so  the  colo- 
nial traders  had  to  pay  more  for  the  sugar  and  molasses,  and 
did  not  bring  back  so  much  money.  Moreover,  the  English 
islands  could  not  furnish  them  with  half  the  molasses  they 
wanted.  They  had  no  right  to  trade  with  foreign  islands, 
for  foreign  governments,  like  the  English  government,  in- 
sisted that  trade  with  their  colonies  was  for  their  merchants 
alone.  French  and  Spanish  planters,  however,  were  usually 
ready  to  buy  of  the  English  colonists,  because  French  and 
Spanish  merchants  could  not  sell  food  so  cheaply.  The 
consequence  was  that  many  colonial  ship-masters  became 
smugglers.  When  the  English  planters  found  that  the 
colonists  were  buying  so  much  sugar  and  molasses  from 
the  French,  they  complained  to  the  home  government, 
which  attempted  in  1733  to  stop  the  trade  by  placing 
high  taxes  on  such  products  brought  into  the  northern 
colonies.     Nevertheless,  the  smuggling   went    on,    and    the 


132 


HOW   THE   COLONISTS   LIVED 


colonists  paid  little  attention  to  the  ''  Sugar  Act,"  as  the 
law  was  called. 

Fisheries.  —  Many  sailors,  especially  in  New  England, 
were  engaged  in  fishing  for  cod  and  mackerel  off  the 
coast  or  on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland.  Sailors  learned  to 
capture  the  sperm  whale  and  to  obtain  oil  from  the  blubber. 
Towns  like  Marblehead,  Nantucket,  and  New  Bedford  were 
famous  for  their  success  in  whaHng. 

Money.  —  Money  is  needed  to  carry  on  business.  Those 
who  have  something  to  exchange  cannot  readily  find  the  per- 
son who  wants  it  and  who  has  something  they  are  willing  to 
receive.  For  this  reason  the  first  Plymouth  colonists  used 
polished  shells  and  the  Virginians  used  tobacco  as  money. 
EngHsh  coins  did  not  remain  long  in  the  colonies,  chiefly 
because  the  colonists  always  bought  more  of  the  English 
merchants  than  they  sold  to  them  and  were  obliged  to  pay 
the  difference  in  coin.  Spanish  coins  were  the  most  common. 
After  1728  the  new  Spanish  ''dollar,"  with  its  halves  and 
quarters,  and  Portuguese  coins  were  widely  used. 

Paper  Money.  —  During  the  wars  with  the  French,  Mas- 
sachusetts, having  no  money  in  its  treasury  to  pay  the  sol- 

diers,    ordered 


SET^  7?^"^  ^'^w  OF  THE  Colony  of 

m%  Mw-ToT-i,  THIS    Bill    SHAI.L, 

pafi  current  tPj-  foe.  FIVE 
POUNDS.  M  New  Yokk, 
the  Second  Day  of  April  ,  0"£ 
Thoufand  S^tn  Hundred  arjd  Fifty 


[Numb.  >;>'^ 


jjlOQs.l'^z^ -"/p^-tsri    Tis  Death  TO  couDierfeit  this  BILL. 

New  York  Colonial  Paper  Money 


paper  money,  or 
promises  to  pay, 
to  be  given  them. 
Massachusetts 
frequently  chose 
this  easy  way  of 
paying  its  debts. 
The  same  thing 
was  done  by  most 
*of  the  other   col- 


onies.    The  difficulty  was  that  the  promises  to  pay  were  not 
kept,  and  that  it  took  at  various  times  from  seven  to  twenty- 


SCHOOLS    AND    COLLEGES  133 

six  dollars  in  paper  to  obtain  one  dollar  in  coin.  The  Eng- 
lish government  attempted  to  stop  the  issue  of  such  money, 
but  without  much  success. 

Colonial  Schools.  —  One  consequence  of  the  lack  of  money 
was  inabihty  to  provide  good  schools.  In  several  colonies  , 
the  legislatures  had  voted  that  schools  should  b*e  estabhshed  " 
by  all  towns  containing  a  certain  number  of  families.  Mas- 
sachusetts threatened  to  fine  towns  which  did  not  obey  the 
law.  Twice  the  fines  were  doubled,  but  it  was  easier  to  pay 
them  than  to  support  teachers.  In  Pennsylvania  parents 
who  did  not  teach  their  children  to  read  and  write  were 
threatened  with  a  fine  of  £5.  The  growth  of  schools  in  the 
South  was  still  slower,  because  the  inhabitants  were  more 
scattered.  In  Virginia  a  few  private  schools  were  founded 
with  money  left  by  prosperous  planters.  Sons  of  planters 
were  sent  to  England  for  their  education  or  were  taught 
by  private  teachers.  Public  schools  in  the  colonies  were 
only  for  boys.  Girls  sometimes  learned  to  read  and  write 
in  private  schools. 


College  of  William  and  Mary 
After  a  drawing  made  about  1740 


Colleges.  —  Harvard  remained  the  only  college  until  just 
at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  a  college  was 
founded  in  Virginia,  and  named  William  and  Mary  for  the 
monarchs  then  reigning  in  England.     A  few  years  later,  in 


134 


HOW   THE    COLONISTS   LIVED 


1 701,  a  college  was  established  in  Connecticut  and  named 
after  Elihu  Yale,  a  wealthy  merchant  who  gave  it  a  large 
sum.  Soon  other  colleges  were  founded — ^at  Princeton  in 
New  Jersey,  at  Providence  in  Rhode  Island,  and  at  Han- 
over in  New  Hampshire.  Benjamin  Frankhn  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  an  "Academy"  at  Philadelphia,  which  later 
became  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  It  differed  from 
the  other  colleges  in  making  the  study  of  the  English  language 
as  important  as  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek. 

The  main  purpose  of  the  colleges  was  to  train  clergymen. 
For  this  reason  older  students  in  Yale  were  required  to  "  read 
some  part  of  the  Old  Testament  out  of  Hebrew  into  Greek 
in  the  morning  and  to  turn  some  part  of  the  New  Testament 
out  of  EngHsh  or  Latin  into  Greek  at  the  time  of  the  evening 
recitation."  Dartmouth  college  was 
originally  intended  to  train  Indians  to 
teach  Christianity  to  their  tribes.  In 
Frankhn's  "Academy"  other  needs  of 
the  community  were  equally  remem- 
bered. Even  in  Philadelphia,  a 
young  man  wishing  to  study  law  or 
medicine  had  to  do  so  in  the  ofhce  of 
a  lawyer  or  a  doctor,  and  not  at  a 
college. 

Printing.  —  Most  of  the  books  in 
the  colonies  were  brought  from  Eng- 
land and  Europe,  but  a  few  books 
and  pamphlets  were  printed  in 
America.  A  printing  press  was  set 
up  in  Massachusetts  as  early  as  1638.  Newspapers  were 
rare.  This  is  not  surprising,  because  there  were  none  in  Eng- 
land until  1622.  The  Boston  News  Letter,  begun  in  1704, 
was  the  first  in  America.  One  was  started  in  New  York 
in  1725,  and   another,   by    Frankhn,  in  Philadelphia,   eight 


Franklin's  Printing 
Press 

In  the  custody  of  the  Smith 
sonian  Institution 


LANGUAGE    IN   THE    COLONIES 


135 


years  later.     All  these  papers  looked  like  small  leaflets  and 
were  published  once  a  week. 

Almanacs  were  very  popular.  One  which  Franklin  pub- 
lished was  called  Poor  Richard^ s  Almanac.  It  contained,  be- 
sides the  calendar  and  list 


Poor  Richard,  1733. 

A  N 

Almanack 


ForthcYearofChrift 


I 


733 


Being  the  Firft  after  LEAP  YEAR: 

Md  makes  Jirte*  tf>e  Creation  Years 

By  the  Account  of  the  Eaftcrn  Creeks  7241 

By  the  Latin  CKurcb,   when  G  cut.  y  59 32 

By  the  Computation  of  IV.JV  574.2 

By  the  Roman  Chronology  j^Rj 

By  the  Jeixllb  Rabbics  5494 

Wherein  is  contained 
The  Lunations,  Eclipfes,  Judgment  of 

the  Weather,  Spring  Tides,  Planets  Motions  8c 
mutual  AfpcGs,  Sun  and  Moon's  Rifing  and  Set- 
ting, Length  of  Days,  Time  of  High  Water, 
Fairs,  Courts',  and  obfcrvable  Days 

Fitted  tothc  Latitude  of  Forty  Degrees^ 

and  a  Meridian  of  Five  Hours  Weft  from  Ltndm, 
but  may  without  fenfiblc  Error,  fervc  all  the  ad- 
jacent Places^  even  from  Netvfoundland  to  South' 
Carolhia. ' 

By  RICHJRD  SJUNDBRS,?hilom, 


of  eclipses,  many  bits  of 
history,  proverbs,  and 
practical  advice.  Books 
and  newspapers  were 
costly,  but  everybody 
could  have  Poor  Richard^ s 
Almanac.  Franklin's 
rhymes  and  jokes  and 
quaint  sayings  taught  his 
readers  many  things, 
above  all  to  be  frugal  and 
industrious.  One  of  his 
sayings  was,  "Sloth  like 
Rust  consumes  faster  than 
Labor  wears;"  another, 
everywhere  familiar, 
"Early  to  bed, and  early  to 
rise,  makes  a  man  healthy, 
wealthy,  and  wise." 

Language  in  the  Colo- 
nies. —  Though  many  of 
the  colonists  came  from 
the  continent  of  Europe, 
EngHsh  was  the  language 
spoken  almost  everywhere.  It  soon  began  to  differ  some- 
what from  the  Enghsh  spoken  in  England,  because  the  colo- 
nists invented  names  for  things  in  America  which  they  had 
not  seen  in  England  or  the  names  of  which  they  had  forgotten. 
For  example,  they  called  birds  after  their  colors,  like  ''black- 


PHILADELPHIA; 

Piiatcd  and  fold  by  B.  FR.JNKL/N,  at  the  New 

_  Printing  Office  near  the  Market. 

'"""""'"""  The  Third  Jmpicinoa. 

Reduced  Facsimile  of  the  Title-Page 
or  Poor  Richard's  Alaianac 


136 


HOW   THE    COLONISTS    LIVED 


bird"  or  "bluebird,"  or  after  their  cry,  Hke  '^ catbird"  and 
"mocking-bird."  From  the  Indians  they  borrowed  many 
names,  such  as  moose,  chipmunk,  pecan,  tobacco,  canoe,  ham- 
mock. The  Indian  names  for  rivers  and  lakes  were  often  kept. 
Religion.  —  The  colonists  were  very  religious.  Virginia, 
Maryland,  and  the  Carolinas  adopted  the 
Episcopal  or  English  Church.  Every  one  was 
obliged  to  pay  for  its  services.  Maryland  had 
originally  been  planned  as  a  refuge  for  the 
Roman  Catholics,  but  the  Protestants  in  time 
outnumbered  them  twelve  to  one.  In  Mas- 
sachusetts and  Connecticut  most  people  were 
Congregationalists.  Baptists  were  numerous 
in  Rhode  Island  and  North  CaroHna,  and 
Quakers  in  New  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania.  Wher- 
ever the  Scotch -Irish 
settled,  Presbyterian 
churches  were  founded. 

Superstitions.  —  The 
colonists  had  many  strange 
notions,  now  called  super- 
stitions. One  was  a  belief 
in  witchcraft,  which  they 
brought  over  from  England 
and  Europe.  There  the  belief  in  witches  was  widespread. 
If  butter  was  slow  in  coming  when  cream  was  churned,  the 
colonist  thought  that  witches  were  in  it  and  must  be  driven 
out  by  dropping  a  red-hot  horse-shoe  into  the  cream.  If 
pigs  were  sick  they  were  supposed  to  be  bewitched. 

Horse-shoes  or  broomsticks  were  often  placed  over  door- 
ways to  keep  out  witches.  To  be  a  witch,  that  is,  possessed 
by  an  evil  spirit,  was  regarded  as  worse  than  a  misfortune 
—  it  was  a  crime.     Many  hundreds  had  been  put  to  death 


Old  South  Church,  Boston 


COLONIAL   AMUSEMENTS  137 

in  Europe  as  witches.  Salem,  Massachusetts,  gained  an 
unhappy  fame  because  of  a  panic  about  witches  which  seized 
the  village  early  in  1692.  Certain  girls,  troubled  with  what 
is  now  called  hysteria,  said  they  were  tormented  by  witches, 
and  accused  neighbors,  chiefly  poor,  ignorant,  old  women. 
Before  the  panic  was  over  twenty  persons  had  been  found 
guilty  by  the  courts  and  executed.  This  superstition  Hngered 
a  long  time  after  the  persecutions  at  Salem  ceased. 

Amusements  in  the  Colonies.  —  The  colonists  had  much 
hard  work  to  do,  but  they  found  time  to  play.  When  corn- 
husking  season  came,  or  the  frame  of  a  house  was  to  be  raised, 
the  neighbors  gathered  to  help.  As  soon  as  the  work  was 
done  all  sat  down  to  tables  loaded  wath  good  things.  Some- 
times the  men  joined  in  a  wolf  hunt.  The  chase  was  always 
exciting  and  ended  in  the  destruction  of  a  dangerous  pest. 

The  planters  enjoyed  horse-racing  and  fox-hunting.  The 
Dutch  introduced  several  healthful  sports — bowling,  skating, 
and  sleigh  riding.  In  Boston  the  boys  kicked  balls  back  and 
forth,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  football.  They  had 
many  other  games  such  as  boys  play  nowadays. 

In  New  York  and  the  southern  colonies  an  occasional  band 
of  actors  from  England  played  in  the  chief  towns.  The 
Puritans,  Hke  the  Puritans  in  England,  were  opposed  to 
the  theatre,  and  would  not  allow  plays  in  their  towns. 

Dress.  —  The  well-to-do  colonists  followed  English  fash- 
ions. The  planters  and  merchants  especially  tried  to  dress  like 
the  London  merchants  with  whom  they  dealt.  On  Sundays 
and  hoHdays  the  men  wore  wigs  of  long,  powdered  hair,  tied 
in  a  cue,  three-cornered  hats  covered  with  lace,  coats  of  plush 
or  broadcloth,  often  in  bright  colors,  embroidered  vests,  tight- 
fitting  knee-breeches,  long  silk  stockings,  and  pointed  shoes 
with  silver  buckles.  The  Puritans  and  Quakers  dressed  more 
simply.  Indeed,  few. of  the  colonists  could  afford  finery,  and 
most  of  them  dressed  in  homespun  or  leather  or  deerskin. 


138  HOW   THE    COLONISTS    LIVED 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  did  the  appearance  of  the  older  settlements  change?  Where  were 
colonists  to  be  found  who  were  living  as  the  earlier  settlers  had  lived? 

2.  Why  did  the  colonies  differ  greatly  in  occupations  and  manner  of  Hfe? 
In  what  ways  did  they  differ? 

3.  Is  it  strange  that  the  colonists  did  not  have  many  things  which  we 
now  have?  Name  some  of  the  things  that  we  use  every  day  which  they  did 
not  have.      How  were  the  houses  heated  and  lighted? 

4.  Why  were  the  colonists  not  as  careful  in  farming  as  farmers  today? 

5.  How  was  a  plantation  managed?  What  did  the  overseer  do?  Who 
were  the  laborers  on  plantations?  What  did  they  raise?  In  what  part  of  the 
South  was  farming  like  that  in  the  North? 

6.  Why  did  the  colonists  do  so  many  things  in  their  own  houses  instead 
of  doing  them  in  factories  as  today?  What  work  was  done  in  the  homes  as 
domestic  industries? 

7.  What  industries  were  forbidden  in  the  colonies?  Why  did  parliament 
tell  the  colonists  what  they  should  make  and  what  they  should  not  make? 

8.  Why  did  parliament  pass  the  Navigation  Acts  in  the  first  place?  What 
limits  did  these  place  on  trade  in  the  "enumerated  articles"? 

9.  What  profitable  trade  did  the  northern  colonies  find?  Why  did  par- 
liament try  to  stop  part  of  this  trade?     Did  the  plan  of  parliament  succeed? 

10.  What  did  the  colonists  use  as  money?  Why  was  colonial  paper  money 
not  a  good  kind  of  money? 

11.  Why  were  the  colonial  schools  few  in  number?  Why  did  the  southern 
colonies  have  even 'fewer  schools  than  the  northern  colonies? 

12.  What  colleges  were  founded  in  colonial  days?  What  was  the  main 
object  of  the  people  in  founding  colleges?  In  what  way  did  Franklin's  Acad- 
emy at  Philadelphia  differ  from  the  others? 

13.  Why  was  Poor  Richard's  Almanac  so  widely  read  and  so  popular? 
What  useful  things  did  it  teach  the  people? 

14.  How  did  the  English  language  in  the  colonies  differ  from  English  as 
spoken  in  England? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Visit  a  museum  and  examine  all  articles  which  illustrate  colonial  life, 
and  tell  about  these  in  class. 

2.  Gather  pictures  of  colonial  houses,  money,  farm  tools,  furniture,  etc. 

3.  Make  out  a  list  of  the  domestic  or  home  industries  carried  on  by  men  and 
women  in  colonial  times.     Underscore  any  which  are  still  found  in  the  homes. 

4.  Collect  examples  of  superstitions  or  strange  notions  still  known,  whether 
believed  or  not. 

5.  Make  two  lists  of  amusemerlts  —  one  for  colonial  times,  another  of  those 
common  in  some  part  of  the  United  States  today. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

HOW   THE    COLONIES   WERE    GOVERNED 

Another  English  Mistake.  —  It  was  a  mistake  for  the  rulers 
of  England  to  act  as  if  the  colonists  did  not  have  the  same 
rights  of  trade  as  the  people  who  remained  in  England.  They 
made  another  mistake  in  changing  their  plans  of  colonial 
government.     At  first  they  allowed  the  colonists  to  govern 


Great  Seal  granted  to  the  New  England  Colonies  in  1685 

themselves  almost  independently.  But  after  the  colonies 
became  large,  the  government  interfered  more  often  in  the 
management  of  their  affairs.  This  interference  was  carried 
so  far  that  the  colonists  thought  their  rights  were  in  danger. 
The  disputes  which  took  place  were  commonly  about  what 
the  colonial  governments  should  be  permitted  to  do,  rather 
than  about  the  way  in  which  they  should  be  organized. 

Local  Government.  —  The  colonists,  like  Americans  now- 
adays, had  local  governments,  managing  villages  or  cities 
or  counties,  and  provincial  governments,  for  whole  colonies, 
corresponding  to  the  present  state  governments. 


I40       HOW   THE    COLONIES   WERE    GOVERNED 

In  New  England  the  town  meeting,  a  general  meeting  of 
the  men,  settled  such  matters  as  the  care  of  the  common 
fields,  the  roads,  ferries,  bridges,  and  fences.  Boston  retained 
the  town  form  of  government  until  long  after  the  Revolution. 
At  the  town  meeting  were  chosen  the  town  officials — select- 
men, constables,  fence-viewers,  field-drivers,  pound-keepers 
for  stray  cattle,  and  tithing-men  to  arrest  loafers  and  Sabbath 
breakers  and  to  keep  order  among  the  boys  at  church. 

In  the  southern  colonies,  including  Maryland,  as  many  of 
the  settlers  lived  on  large  farms  or  plantations,  nothing  like 
the  town  meeting  was  convenient.  Instead,  the  governor 
of  the  colony  appointed  justices  of  the  peace  who  managed 
the  affairs  of  each  county.  The  middle  colonies.  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania,  used  a  mixture  of  the  two  systems. 
Both  systems  were  famiHar  to  the  colonists  before  they  left 
England. 

Provincial  Government.  —  Legislatures  existed  in  every 
colony.  They  were  modeled  after  the  EngHsh  parhament. 
At  the  head  of  the  colonial  government  was  a  governor.  In 
Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  he  was  chosen  by  the  people, 
in  Pennsylvania  ^  and  Maryland  he  was  appointed  by  the 
proprietor,  and  in  the  other  colonies  by  the  king.  Massa- 
chusetts originally  had  the  right  to  choose  a  governor,  but 
lost  it  during  the  reign  of  Charles  11. 

Laws  adopted  by  the  colonial  legislatures  might  be  vetoed 
by  the  governor  or  disapproved  by  the  government  in  Eng- 
land. One  difficulty  was  that  it  took  two  or  three  years 
to  obtain  either  approval  or  disapproval  from  the  English 
government.  The  decision,  when  made,  sometimes  annulled 
laws  adopted  many  years  before.  For  example,  in  1754  the 
king  disapproved  of  laws  made  by  North  CaroKna  in  171 5. 
The  Pennsylvanians  were  required  by  their  charter  to  send 
each  law  to  England  for  approval  within  five  years  of  its  pas- 

^  Delaware  had  the  same  governor  as  Pennsylvania. 


PROVINCIAL    GOVERNMENT 


141 


sage,  but  they  avoided  the  requirement  by  making  the  laws 
good  for  a  period  less  than  five  years.  Sometimes  the  vetoes 
disapproved  bad  laws,  but  often  they  annulled  laws  which 
were  reasonable;  for  example,  certain  laws  of  Massachusetts 
which  simply  repeated  rights  claimed  for  EngHshmen  in  the 
Great  Charter  five  hundred  years  before. 


Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  in  Colonial  Times 
"The  Cradle  of  Liberty" 

One  thing  which  made  such  vetoes  disagreeable  to  the 
colonists  was  the  fact  that  the  EngHsh  kings  ceased  after 
1707  to  veto  acts  of  parliament.  Consequently  the  veto  was 
used  only  to  prevent  colonial  legislatures  from  making  laws. 
This  seemed  unfair.  If  parliament  could  make  laws  for 
EngHshmen  at  home,  why  should  not  the  colonial  assem- 
bhes  do  the  same  for  Englishmen  in  the  colonies? 

As  the  kings  had  begun  to  rule  through  officials  who  re- 
mained in  office  only  with  the  consent  of  a  majority  of  the 
members  of  parhament,  it  was  parHament,  and  not  the  king,, 
that  did  the  vetoing.     Parliament  became  a  many-headed 


142       HOW   THE    COLONIES    WERE    GOVERNED 

monarch,  which,  unfortunately,  was  as  likely  to  misunder- 
stand the  needs  of  the  colonies  as  ever  Charles  I  or  his  two 
sons. 

Legislatures  and  Governors.  —  The  legislatures  of  New 
York  and  Massachusetts  had  many  disputes  with  the  gover- 
nors. One  New  York  governor  spent  upon  his  own  pleasures 
money  which  the  legislature  had  raised  for  new  fortifications. 
The  legislature  then  appointed  a  treasurer  to  take  charge  of 
expenditures,  and  was  not  very  generous  in  the  amounts 
which  it  voted.  The  governor  threatened  to  have  the  taxes 
levied  on  the  colony  by  parHament.  The  legislature  finally 
declared  that  only  the  representatives  chosen  by  the  people 
had  the  right  to  vote  away  their  money.  This  was  the  same 
language  which  parliament  had  used  a  hundred  years  before 
in  its  disputes  with  James  I  and  Charles  I. 

The  legislators  thought  that  a  governor  would  be  more 
likely  to  listen  to  their  wishes  if  he  depended  upon  them 
every  year  for  his  salary.  In  this  practice  they  were  simply 
following  the  example  set  by  parliament  in  dealing  with 
kings.  One  Massachusetts  governor  refused  to  accept  the 
sums  voted  to  him  as  salary  because  his  orders  from  the 
home  government  declared  that  he  must  insist  upon  a 
permanent,  rather  than  an  annual,  settlement  of  his  salary. 

The  English  government  made  another  blunder  in  failing 
to  entrust  the  management  of  colonial  affairs  to  a  single  set 
of  officials.  Colonial  business  was  distributed  among  differ- 
ent departments  of  the  English  administration,  as  EngHsh 
business  was,  and  sometimes  the  two  were  badly  confused. 

Attacks  on  Colonial  Charters. — At  different  times,  some  of 
them  long  before  1750,  plans  were  proposed  in  England  to 
make  the  colonies  more  dependent  upon  the  will  of  officials 
appointed  by  the  home  government.     In  1684  the  charter  ^ 

1  A  charter  described  the  rights  of  colonists,  for  example,  their  right  to 
choose  a  governor  or  to  select  representatives  to  their  assembly. 


ATTACK   ON   COLONIAL    CHARTERS 


143 


of  Massachusetts  was  taken  away.  The  people  of  Connecti- 
cut feared  the  same  misfortune.  There  is  a  story  that  when 
the  royal  agent  went  before  the  general  assembly  of  Con- 
necticut to  demand  the  charter,  the  debate  was  purposely 
prolonged  until  late  in  the  evening.  Finally  the  candles 
were  blown  out,  and  when  they  were  relighted  the  charter 
had  disappeared.  Some  one  had  carried  it  off  and  hidden  it 
in  the  hollow  of  an  oak,  known 
thereafter  as  the  Charter  Oak. 

After  James  II  became  king  he 
made  Edmund  Andros  governor 
of  all  the  colonies  north  and  east 
of  the  Delaw^are  River;  that  is. 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  and  all 
New  England.  Andros  was  given 
power  to  make  laws,  raise  taxes, 
and  settle  disputes  in  his  own 
court.  In  this  James  was  treat- 
ing the  liberties  of  Enghshmen  in 
the  colonies  with  the  same  con- 
tempt with  which  he  treated  their 
rights  in  England.  The  revolu- 
tion of  1688  soon  sent  the  king  into  exile. 

In  1689,  when  the  people  of  Massachusetts  learned  what 
was  taking  place  in  England,  they  seized  Andros,  threw  him 
into  Castle  WilHam  in  Boston  harbor,  and  then  sent  him 
back  to  England.  Two  years  later  Massachusetts  received 
a  new  charter,  but  one  which  did  not  permit  the  people  to 
choose  their  governor.  Plymouth  was  at  this  time  united 
with  Massachusetts. 

Ten  years  later  a  party  in  parHament  attempted  to  pass 
a  bill  taking  away  the  charters  of  Rhode  Island  and  Connecti- 
cut, the  only  colonies  which  could  still  elect  their  governors, 
and  depriving  the  proprietors  of  other  colonies  of  their  con- 


SiR  Edmund  Andros 

After  the  portrait  in  the  State 
Library  at  Hartford 


144       HOW   THE    COLONIES    WERE    GOVERNED 


trol.  The  purpose  was  to  weaken  the  Quakers  and  the  Puri- 
tans, the  first  being  strong  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  second 
in  New  England. 

Bacon's  Rebellion.  —  Sometimes  troubles  in  the  colonies, 
arose  over  what  the  governor  left  undone,  rather  than  over 
what  he  did.  Governor  Berkeley  of  Virginia  in  1676  neg- 
lected to  defend  from  Indian  attacks  the  planters  on  the  fron- 
tier, then  a  short  distance  northwest  of  Richmond.     He  was 

_  apparently    afraid    of 


losing  a  profitable  trade 
with  the  Indians. 
When  the  planters 
asked  for  protection 
he  not  only  refused  to 
hsten  to  them,  but 
ordered  them  to  send 
no  more  petitions. 
The  Virginians  decided 
to  help  themselves^ 
and  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Nathaniel  Bacon,  whose  plantation  had  also  suffered 
from  Indian  raids,  marched  against  the  Indians. 

No  sooner  were  Bacon  and  his  followers  on  the  frontier 
fighting  the  Indians  than  Berkeley  proclaimed  them  rebels 
for  waging  war  against  his  will.  Bacon  prepared  for  war 
with  the  governor,  and,  it  is  said,  suggested  that  Virginia, 
Maryland,  and  CaroHna  join  together,  choose  their  own  gov- 
ernors, and  manage  their  own  affairs.  He  drove  the  governor 
out  of  Jamestown,  and  set  fire  to  the  village  so  that  Berkeley 
might  not  again  take  refuge  there.  Bacon's  sudden  death 
deprived  the  Virginians  of  their  leader  and  the  rebellion 
ended.  About  thirty  of  his  followers  were  put  to  death  and 
'their  property  seized.  But  the  discontent  was  so  great  that 
Berkeley  was  recalled  by  the  English  government. 


Bacon  Quarter  Branch 

Where  Bacon  had  a  plantation  near  the  falls  of 

the  James 


PUNISHMENTS 


145 


Customs  Officials.  —  There  were  many  other  officers  in 
the  colonies  besides  the  governors  who  were  appointed  by  the 
king.  The  most  unpopular  were  those  whose  duty  it  was 
to  enforce  the  trade  laws,  like  the  Navigation  Acts  and  the 
Sugar  Act.  When  juries  of  colonists  would  not  convict 
those  who  disobeyed  these  laws,  the  English  government 
set  up  what  were  called  ''Admiralty  Courts,"^  where  a  judge 
appointed  by  the  king  decided  without  a  jury  whether  the 
person  accused  was  guilty.  This  made  the  trade  laws  all 
the  more  unpopular,  so  that 
many  men  thought  it  was  not 
wrong  to  disobey  them. 

Punishments.  —  In  the  pun- 
ishment of  ordinary  offenses  or 
crimes  the  colonial  courts  were 
less  harsh  than  the  English 
courts.  In  England  about  200 
crimes  were  punished  with 
death.  Among  these  were  sheep 
steaHng,  pocket  picking,  even  if 
the  amount  was  no  more  than 
a  shilling,  and  steaHng  an  article 
worth  five  shillings  from  a  shop. 
In  the  colonies  many  crimes 
were  also  punished  with  death, 
and  handbills  were  often  circulated  explaining  the  crime 
and  holding  up  the  fate  of  the  criminal  as  a  warning  to 
evil-doers. 

The  purpose  of  several  of  the  more  ordinary  punishments 
was  the  disgrace  of  the  wrong-doer  in  the  sight  of  his  neigh- 
bors. The  whipping-post,  the  pillory,  and  the  stocks  were 
in  common  use.  The  maker  of  the  first  stocks  in  Boston 
was  sentenced  to  sit  in  them  an  hour  because  the  magistrates 

^  Special  courts  to  try  offenses  against  the  shipping  laws. 


Whipping-Post 


Executions  were  public, 


146       HOW   THE    COLONIES   WERE    GOVERNED 


thought  he  charged  too  much.  A  man  in  North  Carolina 
who  had  stolen  five  dollars'  worth  of  goods  was  sentenced  to 
thirty-nine  lashes  on  the  bare  back.  In  England  he  would 
have  been  hanged. 

French  and  Spanish  Colonies.  —  The  English  colonies, 
notwithstanding  their  disputes  with  their  governors  or  other 
officials,  had  a  great  many  more  rights  of  self-government 
than  either  the  Spanish  or  the  French. 
As  ordinary  Frenchmen  had  little  or  no 
share  in  the  government  at  home,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  they  had  none  in  the 
colonies.  Each  colony  had  a  governor 
to  command  the  soldiers  and  an  intend- 
ant  to  manage  affairs.  The  governor, 
intendant,  and  judges  were  appointed  by 
the  king.  There  were  no  juries.  The 
Spanish  colonists  had  town  councils  or 
cabildos,  but  no  assembhes  representing 
a  whole  colony. 


QUESTIONS 

I .   What  two  mistakes  did  the  rulers  of  England 


Pillory 

make  in  governing  their  colonies?  Upon  what  kind 
of  subjects  were  the  disputes  between  England  and  the  colonists  most 
common? 

2.  What  did  the  New  England  town  meeting  do?  What  were  the  names  of 
the  chief  officers  in  a  town?  Why  was  there  no  town  meeting  in  the  southern 
colonies?  What  took  the  place  of  it  there?  Where  did  the  colonists  get  their 
ideas  about  local  government? 

3.  Describe  the  general  government  of  a  colony.  Who  appointed  the  gov- 
ernors? Who  chose  the  members  of  the  legislatures  or  assemblies?  Were  the 
colonial  legislatures  completely  free  to  make  laws  for  the  colonies?  Why  did 
the  colonists  think  the  veto  of  their  laws  by  the  English  ministers  unjust? 

4.  What  disputes  did  the  legislatures  and  governors  have  over  the  govern- 
ment of  the  colonies?  How  did  the  legislators  manage  to  hold  the  governors  in 
check?  What  words  did  the  representatives  of  the  colonists  use  which  Eng- 
lishmen had  used  in  quarrels  with  James  I  and  Charles  I? 

5.  What  officials  of  England  were  concerned  with  the  government  of  the 


QUESTIONS    AND    EXERCISES  147 

colonies?     What  additional  blunder  did  England  make  in  the  management  of 
colonial  affairs? 

6.  What  colonies  lost  their  charters  at  one  time  or  another?  Why  was  it  a 
disadvantage  for  a  colony  to  lose  its  charter? 

7.  How  did  Massachusetts  get  rid  of  Edmund  Andros?  Why  did  the  people 
of  Massachusetts  disHke  him  so  much? 

8.  Why  did  the  Virginians,  led  by  Bacon,  rebel  against  the  rule  of  Berkeley? 
Did  the  rebels  fail  or  succeed? 

9.  What  was  the  purpose  of  the  colonists  in  punishing  wrong-doers?  Which 
were  more  severe,  the  colonial  or  the  English  laws  for  punishing  crime?  Which 
had  the  more  liberties,  the  English,  French,  or  Spanish  colonies? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Learn  about  the  present  local  government  in  some  part  of  the  United 
States.  Does  this  resemble  most  closely  the  local  government  in  the  northern, 
middle,  or  southern  colonies? 

2.  Find  out  what  town  or  city  officers  now  perform  the  duties  of  the  officers 
of  an  early  New  England  town. 

3.  Make  out  a  list  of  the  officers,  appointed  by  England,  mentioned  in  this 
chapter,  who  had  anything  to  do  with  governing  the  colonies. 

4.  Prepare  a  list  of  crimes  which  are  now  punished  severely,  and  tell  how 
the  mode  of  treatment  differs  from  the  colonial  method. 


In  the  Stocks 


CHAPTER  XIV 
CONQUEST   OF   THE   FRENCH    COLONIES    IN   AMERICA 

Crossing  the  Appalachian  Barrier.  —  Before  1750  there 
were  few  English  settlers  beyond  the  great  Appalachian  bar- 
rier. Traders  from  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  had  ventured 
westward  as  far  as  the  Mississippi.  Traders  from  Virginia, 
Pennsylvania,  and  New  York  were  beginning  to  find  their 
way  across  the  mountains  to  the  banks  of  the  Ohio.  As  the 
population  of  the  colonies  on  the  coast  increased,  it  was 
certain  that  emigrants  would  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  the 
traders.  A  vast  unoccupied  region  stretched  between  the 
Appalachians  and  the  French  villages  in  the  Illinois  country. 
Moreover,  the  French  settlements  were  small,  containing 
altogether  about  500  inhabitants. 

Western  Claims.  —  The  region  between  the  Appalachians 
and  the  Mississippi  was  not  considered  either  by  England 
or  by  France  as  vacant.  The  French  claimed  that  their 
territory  extended  eastward  to  the  mountains,  while  the 
English  declared  that  they  owned  the  whole  country  as  far 
as  the  Pacific.  According  to  the  original  charters  of  Virginia, 
Massachusetts,  and  Connecticut,  their  lands*  extended  to  the 
South  Sea,  which  was  supposed  to  be  not  far  distant.  When 
it  was  discovered  how  far  away  the  Pacific  Ocean  was,  the 
colonists  simply  lengthened  their  claims.^  After  all,  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  region  beyond  the  mountains  belonged  to 
the  French  or  to  the  English  had  to  be  decided  by  force. 

^  When  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  received  charters  the  Pacific  Ocean  was 
made  their  western  border,  although  the  royal  government  knew  by  that 
time  how  distant  the  Pacific  Ocean  was. 


ENGLISH   AND    FRENCH   RIVALRY 


149 


French  and  English  Rivalry.  —  In  1749  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish were  each  wide  awake  to  what  the  other  was  doing.  They 
had  just  finished  a  war  into  which  they  had  been  drawn  as 
allies  of  Frederick  II  of  Prussia  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria. 
They  had  fought  in  India  and  America  as  well  as  in  Europe. 


The  territory  occupied  by  the  English  is  dotted 

The  French  governor  of  Canada  and  th^  EngHsh  in  Vir- 
ginia now  took  steps  looking  toward  the  occupation  of  the 
Ohio  country.  The  French  crossed  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake 
Chautauqua,  and  from  there  to  the  Allegheny  River.  They 
floated  past  the  spot  where  Pittsburgh  now  stands,  and  went 
on  as  far  as  the  Great  Miami,  returning  to  Lake  Erie  by  the 


I50       CONQUEST   OF   THE    FRENCH    COLONIES 

Maumee.     Wherever  they  saw  English  traders,  they  warned 
them  to  leave  the  country. 

The  Ohio  Company. — While  this  expedition  was  complet- 
ing its  work,  some  Virginians,  among  them  Lawrence  and 
Augustine  Washington,  brothers  of  George  Washington, 
formed  a  land  company.  The  company  was  granted  half  a 
milHon  acres  south  of  the  Ohio,  between  the  Monongahela  and 
the  Kanawha  rivers,  on  the  condition  of  settling  a  hundred 
famines  in  the  region  and  of  biiilding  and  holding  a  fort. 

One  of  the 
best  routes  from 
Virginia  into 
the  Ohio  coun- 
try lay  along 
the  upper   Po- 

CUMBERLAND    AND    THE    NARROWS    OF   WiLL's  tOmaC    tO   Cum- 

MouNTAiN,  Maryland  berland,  Mary- 

The  natural  passage  or  gateway  through  the  first  range       land        whcre 
of  mountains  on  the  route  to  the  Ohio  country  ,^^  . . ,  ,       _,  . 

Will  s  Creek 
breaks  through  the  mountains.  This  route  crossed  the  ridges 
into  the  valley  of  the  Youghiogheny  or  of  the  Monongahela. 
In  1753  the  Ohio  Company  prepared  to  construct  a  fort  near 
where  the  Allegheny  and  the  Monongahela  join  to  form  the 
Ohio.  The  spot  was  admirable  as  a  half-way  station  and  a 
gateway  through  which  emigrants  might  pass  on  to  the 
region  lower  down  on  the  Ohio.  At  the  same  time  a  few 
daring  Virginia  families  took  up  lands  along  the  Monongahela. 
Advance  of  the  French.  —  Meanwhile  Governor  Duquesne 
of  Canada  sent  a  thousand  men  to  the  Ohio  country,  order- 
ing them  to  build  forts  and  hold  the  mountain  passes 
against  EngHsh  intruders.  They  built  a  log  fort  at  Presque 
Isle,  near  Erie,  cut  a  road  southward  to  French  Creek, 
and  seized  an  English  trading  post  at  the  junction  of 
French   Creek  and  the  Allegheny  River.      They  were  now 


ADVANCE    OF    THE    FRENCH 


151 


only  120  miles  from  the  Forks  of  the  Ohio,  where  Pittsburgh 
is  situated. 

The  news  alarmed  the  Ohio  Company,  which  had  not 
yet  built  its  fort.  The  governor  of  Virginia  decided  to 
send  a  messenger  to  warn  the  French  that  they  had  entered 
territory  which  was  not  theirs,  and  to  demand  that  they 
withdraw.  For  the  perilous  journey  Major  George  Washing- 
ton was  finally  chosen.     Although  only  twenty-one,  he  had 


The  Ohio  Country  and  the  new  French  Forts 
Showing  especially  the  rivers,  mountain  barrier,  and  new  French  posts 

already  been  several  years  on  the  Virginia  frontier,  engaged  in 
surveying.  He  was  a  skilled  woodsman  and  a  hardy  trav- 
eler. The  death  of  his  brother  Lawrence  had  brought  him 
an  estate  of  2,50b  acres  beautifully  situated  on  the  Potomac. 
Such  a  plantation  gave  him  a  position  of  influence  in  the 
colony, 

Washington  started  with  several  companions  in  October, 
1753.  Part  of  the  way  his  route  lay  through  trackless  for- 
ests.    The  rivers  were  swollen  and  the  ground  was  covered 


152       CONQUEST   OF   THE    FRENCH    COLONIES 


by  the  early  winter  snows.  The  journey  took  six  weeks. 
Washington  found  the  French  commander  at  Fort  Le  Boeuf, 
near  the  northern  boundary  of  Pennsylvania.  The  response 
which  he  carried  back  to  Governor  Dinwiddie  declared  that 

the    French   king    was 
'  ""gf    master  of  all  the  country 
west  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains. 

Fort  Duquesne.  —  A 
conflict  was  now  certain. 
A  body  of  Virginians 
was  hurried  forward  to 
the  Forks  of  the  Ohio 
to  build  a  fort.  The 
French,  not  to  be  out- 
witted, descended  the 
Allegheny  River  in 
canoes,  drove  away  the 
workmen,  and  con- 
structed a  strong  fort. 
They  named  it  Fort 
Duquesne  in  honor  of 
the  governor  of  Canada. 
Meanwhile  a  large  force 
of  Virginians  had  been 
raised  to  occupy  this  position.  The  advance,  commanded  by 
Washington,  met  a  party  of  Frenchmen  in  the  woods  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  mountains.  A  fight  followed,  in  whick 
the  French  claimed  that  the  Virginians  fired  the  first  shots. 
Jumonville,  the  leader  of  the  French,  and  20  of  his  men 
were  killed,  and  the  rest  surrendered.  Soon  afterwards 
Washington  was  attacked  near  the  same  spot  at  Fort  Neces- 
sity, which  he  had  hastily  constructed.  It  was  his  turn  to 
surrender,  but  the  French  permitted  him  to  march  back  to 


Washington's  Road 

Near  where  he  met  the  French  under 
Jumonville 


THE    SEVEN   YEARS'    WAR  153 

Virginia  on  the  understanding  that  no  attempt  should  be 
made  within  a  year  to  estabhsh  settlements  west  of  the 
mountains. 

The  Seven  Years'  War.  —  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
French  and  Indian  War.  In  Europe,  France  and  England 
were  still  at  peace.  Indeed,  war  was  not  declared  for  two 
years.  It  then  became  part  of  a  struggle  in  which  almost  all 
European  countries  were  engaged,  and  which  was  called  the 
Seven  Years'  War.  France  and  Russia  combined  with  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria  to  take  from  Frederick  the  Great  of 
Prussia  the  territory  which  he  had  gained  in  the  preceding 
war.^  England  aided  Frederick.  This  great  European  war 
accounts  for  the  length  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  in 
America.  Both  England  and  France  were  also  fighting  in 
India.  The  consequence  was  that  neither  could  spare  more 
than  a  small  part  of  their  troops  for  the  conflict  in  America. 

The  Enghsh  had  a  navy  which  was  larger  and  stronger  than 
the  French  navy,  a  very  important  advantage  in  a  struggle 
beyond  the  sea.  The  Enghsh  had  130  battle-ships,^  while 
the  French  had  only  63.  Although  the  French  had  more 
soldiers  than  the  Enghsh,  they  could  not  safely  risk  them  on 
the  ocean  because  they  would  probably  be  captured  by  the 
Enghsh  fleet.  It  was  therefore  merely  a  question  of  time 
when  the  French  in  America  would  be  overwhelmed.  The 
only  chance  of  the  French  was  by  crushing  Frederick  the 
Great,  England's  ally,  on  the  Continent.  But  after  a  few 
successes  they  were  badly  beaten  by  the  Prussian  king. 

Indian  Allies  of  France.  —  The  Indians  in  the  West  took 
sides  with  the  French.     They  looked  upon  the  Enghsh  beyond 

^  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  1 740-1 748,  in  which  Frederick  had 
conquered  Silesia;   called  King  George's  War  in  the  colonies. 

^  A  battle-ship,  or  ship-of-the-line,  at  that  time  was,  like  other  ships,  made 
of  wood.  It  ordinarily  had  three  decks,  and  was  armed  with  from  74  to  120 
cannon. 


154      CONQUEST   OF   THE    FRENCH    COLONIES 

the  mountains  as  intruders.  As  English  settlements  increased, 
the  hunting  grounds  were  spoiled.  The  French  were  few  in 
number  and  interfered  httle  with  Indian  lands.  The  fact 
that  many  of  the  Indians  united  with  the  French  explains 
why  the  war  was  called  ''French  and  Indian." 

The  Albany  Congress.  —  The  Enghsh  were  afraid  that  the 
Iroquois  would  join  the  western  Indians  against  them,  and 
arranged  a  conference  at  Albany  in  the  summer  of  1754. 
Commissioners  from  several  colonies  were  present  at  this 
Albany  conference  or  '' Congress."  They  not  only  tried  to 
strengthen  the  friendly  attitude  of  the  Iroquois,  but  also 
talked  over  plans  of  forming  a  union  of  the  colonies. 

Franklin's  Plan  of  Union.  —  Benjamin  Franklin,  a  dele- 
gate from  Pennsylvania,  was  one  of  the  first  to  see  the  need 
of  uniting  the  colonies.  In  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette,  his  news- 
paper, he  printed  a  picture  of  a  wrigghng  snake  cut  into 
pieces,  with  the  initial  letter  of  a  colony  on  each  piece.     An 

old  superstition  said  that  if  a  snake 
was  cut  up  and  the  pieces  allowed 
to  touch,  they  would  knit  together 
and  the  snake  would  hve.  Un- 
derneath the  picture  Frankhn 
printed  the  words,  ''Join  or  die." 
He  meant  that  the  colonies  must 

Device  printed  in  Franklin's     unite  or  they  WOuld  perish. 
"Pennsylvania  Gazette"  _,,.,.  .  .  , 

Frankhn  s  plan  was  favored  by 

the  delegates  at  Albany,  but  was  not  adopted  by  the  colo- 
nies. Few  persons  had  any  interest  in  union  at  that  time. 
Moreover,  some  of  the  colonists  were  not  alarmed,  as  the 
Virginians  were,  by  the  advance  of  the  French  into  the  Ohio 
country.  The  Quakers,  who  were  very  influential  in  Penn- 
sylvania, were  opposed  to  war  of  any  kind,  and  especially 
a  war  for  territory.  The  colonies  south  of  Virginia  st^od 
in  dread  of  the  Spaniards  or  of  the  Indians  on  their  frontier. 


BRADDOCK'S    DEFEAT 


155 


Something  greater  than  a  quarrel  about  a  frontier  post 
at  the  Forks  of  the  Ohio  would  be  required  to  move  the 
colonies  toward  union. 

Braddock's  Defeat.  —  In  1755  the  English  government 
sent  two  regiments  across  the  Atlantic  to  assist  the  Virginians 
in  seizing  Fort  Duquesne. 


YORK 


The  expedition  was  com- 
manded by  General  Brad- 
dock,  a  soldier  of  courage 
and  abihty,  but  wholly  igno- 
rant of  fighting  in  the  wilder- 
ness  against  Indians  and 
woodsmen.  Washington  was 
in  command  of  the  Virginians. 

After  a  difficult  march 
through  the  forest,  during 
which  ax-men  were  con- 
stantly busy  cutting  down 
trees  in  order  to  widen  the 
trail,  Braddock  reached  and 
crossed  the  Monongahela 
about  eight  miles  above  Fort 
Duquesne.  While  his  army 
was  moving  through  a  wide 
bushy  ravine,  a  French  force  with  many  Indians  suddenly 
attacked  it  on  all  sides.  Washington  and  the  Virginians 
wished  to  scatter  in  the  forest  and  fight  behind  trees  in 
Indian  fashion,  but  Braddock  thought  such  a  method 
co"^ardly  and  tried  to  keep  his  men  in  Hne,  after  the  manner 
of  fighting  in  Europe. 

The  result  was  disaster.  After  having  four  horses  shot 
under  him,  Braddock  fell  mortally  wounded.  Washington 
lost  two  horses,  and  four  times  bullets  tore  through  his  clothes. 
Sixty-three  out  of  eighty-six  officers  and  two-thirds  of  the 


Route  of  Braddock's  Expedition 


156       CONQUEST   OF   THE    FRENCH   COLONIES 


soldiers  were  killed  or  disabled.  Washington  led  the  wreck 
of  the  army  back  to  the  nearest  refuge.  Daniel  Boone,  a 
young  woodsman  from  North  CaroHna,  was  among  the 
fleeing  wagon  drivers. 

Washington's  Defence  of  the  Frontier.  —  The  French  and 
their  Indian  alHes  now  raided  the  frontier  settlements  of 
Pennsylvania,  'Maryland,  and  Virginia.  The  French  com- 
mander boasted  that  all  these  settlements  were  destroyed, 
adding  that  ''the  Indian  villages  are  full  of  prisoners  of  every 

age.      The   enemy  has 

4f"^ 


lost  more  since  the  bat- 
tle than  on  the  day  of 
his  defeat." 

It  was  three  years 
before  another  expe- 
ijlllfr  dition  was  ready  to 
''•^^*^'  '  start  against  Fort  Du- 
quesne.  Washington 
did  his  best  to  defend 
the  border,  which  was 
nearly  300  miles  long. 


^^u»te.k\»i 


Pioneer  Block-House  in  the  Mononga 
HELA  Country 
The  loopholes  for  defense  may  be  seen  under ' 
the  eaves 


At  the  chief  mountain  passes  he  built  block-houses,  strength- 
ened by  stockades.  His  hardy  followers  were  armed  with 
home-made  flint4ock  muskets,  and  carried  tomahawks  and 
scalping  knives  in  their  belts.  They  had  no  regular  army 
uniform,  but  wore  buck-skin  hunting  shirts,  leggings,  and 
moccasins.  Washington's  skill  in  defending  the  ''back  door" 
of  the  colonies  gave  him  a  greater  reputation  than  that  of  any 
other  colonial  officer.  "  -^ 

The  Acadians.  —  The  EngHsh,  in  1755,  also  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  dislodge  the  French  from  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  where  their  presence  threatened  the  settlements  in  the 
Hudson  River  region.  Far  to  the  northeast,  in  Nova  Scotia, 
the  English  feared  that  the  Acadians,  who  had  remained  in 


rrURE    OF    FRENCH    POSTS 


157 


the  country  after  tire  French  gave  it  up  in  17 13,  would  revolt 
and  aid  the  French  soldiers  in  reconquering  it.  Accordingly, 
they  decided  to  ''clear  the  whole  country  of  such  bad  sub- 
jects." The  EngUsh  officers  took  lands  and  cattle,  burned 
houses  and  barns,  and  scattered  the  Acadians  among  the 
EngHsh-speaking  colonies  from  Massachusetts  to  Georgia. 
A  quarter  of  a  century  later  a  French  traveler  passing' 
through  Baltimore  noticed  that 
a  fourth  of  its  inhabitants  were 
Acadians.  The  removal  of  the 
Acadians  is  the  subject  of  Long- 
fellow's poem  Evangeline. 

William  Pitt.  —  In  1757  the 
EngHsh  found  a  new  leader  in 
WilHam  Pitt,  who  was  made 
prime  minister.  Under  his  in- 
spiring influence  no  sacrifices 
seemed  too  great  for  the  people 
of  England  or  of  the  colonies. 
Colonial  assemblies  and  parUa- 
ment,  colonial  officers  a.nd  British  officers,  worked  together. 
The  colonies  raised  their  share  of  troops;  the  mother  country 
had  to  provide  only  tents,  arms,  and  ammunition.  Pitt's 
boldness  swept  away  all  obstacles.  He  once  said,  ''I  am 
sure  I  can  save  this  country  and  that  nobody  else  can;'* 
and  he  convinced  people  that  he  spoke  the  truth. 

Capture  of  French  Posts.  —  In  1758  Louisburg,  on  Cape 
Breton  Island,  was  captured  and  the  fortress  destroyed. 
Fort  Frontenac,  which  guarded  the  route  from  the  upper  St. 
Lawrence  into  Lake  Ontario,  was  also  taken  and  destroyed. 
Another  expedition,  in  which  Washington  had  a  share,  crossed 
Pennsylvania  to  attack  Fort  Duquesne.  The  soldiers  found 
only  blackened  ruins;  the  French  garrison  had  blown  up 
the  fort  and    fled.      The    Enghsh    named    the    cluster    of 


William  Pitt 


158       CONQUEST   OF    THE    FRENCH    COLONIES 


traders'  cabins  Pittsburgh,  in  honor  of  the  great  leader  in 
parhament. 

The  reason  why  the  French  abandoned  Fort  Duquesne  was 
the  lack  of  troops  to  defend  it.  During  the  years  from  1758 
to  1762  the  English  captured  nine-tenths  of  all  the  French 
ships  of  war,  and  France  could  send  little  help  to  the  brave 
officers  and  soldiers  who  were  fighting 
her  battles  in  America.  In  conse- 
quence they  lost  a  fortress  far  more 
important  than  either  Louisburg  or 
Fort  Duquesne.  This  was  Quebec, 
their  oldest  settlement. 

Montcalm  and  Wolfe;  Fall  of 
Quebec,  1759.  —  The  French  com- 
mander at  Quebec  was  the  Marquis 
de  Montcalm,  the  governor  of  New 
France.  To  increase  his  troops  he 
pressed  into  service  boys  of  fifteen 
and  men  of  eighty.  Indians  were 
called  from  far  and  wide.  For  the 
attack  Pitt  sent  General  James  Wolfe. 
Both  Montcalm  and  Wolfe  were  men 
of  unusual  ability.  Montcalm  had 
one  advantage,  the  position  of  Quebec,  which  made  it  almost 
unassailable. 

For  nearly  three  months  Wolfe  watched  before  Quebec, 
trying  to  find  a  weak  place  in  Montcalm's  line  of  defense. 
Every  attack  that  he  made  was  easily  repulsed.  But  Mont- 
calm had  posted  most  of  his  army  to  guard  the  more  dis- 
tant approaches,  thinking  the  heights  immediately  above  the 
city,  rising  in  a  wall  from  250  to  350  feet,  could  be  easily 
defended.  He  once  said  that  a  ^'hundred  men  posted  there 
would  stop  the  whole  English  army."  Wolfe  discovered  a 
zigzag  path  up  the  side  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  city. 


British  Soldier 


THE  ENGLISH  TAKE  QUEBEC 


159 


Volunteers  attempted  this  path  one  dark  night  in  September. 
They  surprised  the  guards  stationed  at  the  top.  By  morn- 
ing 4,000  men  were  in  possession  of  the  heights,  or  Plains  of 
Abraham,  as  they  are  commonly  called. 

Montcalm  immediately  advanced  to  the  attack.  The  Brit- 
ish did  not  fire  until  the  French  were  within  forty  yards. 
The  French  first  wavered,  then  fled,  and  Montcalm  could 
not  rally  them.  Both  he  and  Wolfe  were  mortally  wounded. 
Five  days  later  Quebec  surrendered.  Only  Montreal  was 
now  left  in  the  hands  of  the  French,  and  it  surrendered  the 
next  year. 


Quebec  in  1759 

Close  of  War.  —  This  practically  closed  the  war  in 
America,  but  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  Europe  dragged  on 
three  years  longer.  Before  it  was  over  Spain  took  the  side 
of  France  and  also  suffered  defeat,  the  EngHsh  capturing 
Havana  in  Cuba  and  Manila  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  In 
1763  peace  was  made  and  France  abandoned  to  England  all 
her  possessions  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Spain  was 
obKged  to  give  up  Florida,  a  loss  which  the  French  tried  to 
make  good  by  giving  to  Spain  New  Orleans  and  all  the  French 
territory  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

New  English  Colonies.  —  The  EngHsh  now  had  three  new 
colonial  provinces,  Canada  and  East  and  West  Florida.     They 


i6o       CONQUEST   OF   THE    FRENCH    COLONIES 

intended  to  provide  governments  much  like  those  of  the  other 
colonies.  At  first  it  was  impossible  to  call  together  assem- 
blies representing  the  inhabitants,  and  the  provinces  remained 
under  control  of  mihtary  governors. 

An  Indian  Territory.  —  The  vast  region  north  of  the  Flor- 
idas  and  reaching  from  the  Alleghanies  to  the  Mississippi 
River  was  reserved  to  the  Indians.  The  English  government 
intended  to  open  it  for  settlement  gradually.  Meanwhile 
all  persons  who  had  settled  there  were  warned  to  leave.  In 
this  action  the  government  showed  little  respect  for  the 
claims  of  the  different  colonies  under  their  charters.  Colo- 
nists whose  eyes  had  long  been  turned  to  the  fertile  valleys 
beyond  the  mountains  would  not  be  Hkely  to  obey  the  royal 
proclamation,  especially  after  the  dangers  of  Indian  attack 
were  lessened. 

Pontiac's  War.  —  The  western  Indians  were  not  willing  to 
submit  to  EngHsh  rule.  When  the  EngHsh  commander-in- 
chief  showed  no  readiness  to  win  their  favor  by  presents,  or 
even  to  allow  trade  with  them  to  continue,  they  united  under 
the  leadership  of  Pontiac,  a  chief  of  the  Pottawattamies,  and 
attacked  all  the  posts  from  Detroit  to  Niagara.  With  the 
exception  of  these  two,  all  were  taken  and  their  garrisons 
massacred.  The  Indians  of  the  Ohio  Valley  attacked  the 
posts  in  western  Pennsylvania  and  advanced  into  the  central 
part  of  the  colony.  They  finally  reahzed  that  they  could 
not  drive  the  English  away  and  gave  up  the  struggle.  The 
royal  proclamation  forbidding  settlers  to  enter  the  region 
west  of  the  Alleghanies  was  intended  to  quiet  their  fears  and 
pave  the  way  to  friendly  relations  with  them. 

Pitt  and  the  Rights  of  the  Colonists.  —  At  the  close  of  the 
war  the  colonists  rejoiced  over  the  victory  as  much  as  the 
English  at  home.  They  were  proud  to  belong  to  an  empire 
so  strong  and  great.  But  already  something  had  happened 
which   showed  that  their  enthusiasm  might  be  short-lived. 


THE    RIGHTS    OF   THE    COLONISTS 


i6i 


Even  while  the  war  was  raging,  the  northern  colonies  were 
reluctant  to  break  off  their  trade  with  the  French  West  Indies. 
Pitt  was  angry  at  the  conduct  of  these  colonial  traders.  He 
was  told  that  the  best  way  to  stop  such  trade  with  the  enemy 


GULF    OF 
MEXICO 


THE  BRITISH  TERRITORY 
IN  1763. 

SCALE  OF    MILES 

400  "xiO 


was  to  enforce  the  Sugar  Act.     This  he  resolved  to  do,  and 
the  news  caused  a  panic  among  the  Boston  merchants. 

It  was  difhcult  to  find  smuggled  goods  unless  the  officers 
could  break  into  storehouses  and  other  places  where  they 
thought  these  goods  were  hidden.  An  old  EngHsh  maxim 
declared  every  man's  house  his  castle,  into  which  no  officer 
could  enter  without  a  special  warrant.  For  the  purpose  of 
searching  for  smuggled  goods  general  warrants,  called  'Vrits 


i62       CONQUEST   OF   THE    FRENCH    COLONIES 

of  assistance,"  were  used  in  England,  and  they  had  also  been 
used  in  the  colonies.  In  order  to  stop  their  issue  the  mer- 
chants resolved  to  appeal  to  the  old  legal  maxim.  Although 
they  lost  their  case,  James  Otis,  a  young  lawyer,  awakened 
the  spirit  of  resistance  by  declaring  boldly  that  the  colonists 
had  all  the  rights  of  Englishmen. 

At  the  same  time  the  Virginians  were  aroused  by  a  new 
royal  veto.  Patrick  Henry,  another  young  lawyer,  declared 
in  court  that  this  veto  was  an  act  of  misrule  so  serious  that 
the  people  would  be  justified  in  resistance.^ 

Success  in  the  war  with  the  French  might  quiet  such  dis- 
putes for  a  time,  but  they  were  certain  to  begin  again  unless 
the  Enghsh  government  made  its  laws  more  fair  to  the  colo- 
nists. Furthermore,  disputes  would  endanger  the  hold  of  the 
government  on  the  colonies,  now  that  the  expulsion  of  the 
French  from  Canada  and  the  Mississippi  country  had  partly 
freed  the  colonists  from  the  need  of  British  protection. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  class  of  English  colonists  had  begun  crossing  the  Appalachian 
barrier  before  1750?  What  settlements  had  previously  been  made  in  the 
Illinois  country?  What  colonies  claimed  western  lands?  Where  did  they 
obtain  such  claims? 

2.  What  steps  did  the  French  take  in  1749  toward  occupying  the  Ohio  coun- 
try? What  did  the  Virginians  do?  What  was  the  best  route  from  Virginia 
to  the  Ohio  country? 

3.  What  forts  did  the  French  build  in  order  to  hold  the  Ohio  country? 
Why  did  Washington  make  a  journey  to  one  of  these  forts?  What  answer  did 
the  French  commander  give  him? 

4.  What  trouble  caused  the  French  and  Indian  War  in  America?  Of  what 
greater  war  did  this  French  and  Indian  War  become  a  part?  What  were  the 
nations  fighting  about  in  Europe?  How  did  the  war  in  Europe  affect  the  war 
in  America?     What  advantage  had  England  in  the  war  in  America? 

5.  Which  side  did  the  western  Indians  take?  Why?  Why  was  the  Albany 
Congress  held?  What  plan  did  Franklin  present  to  the  Congress?  Why  did 
not  the  colonies  form  a  union? 

^  This  was  the  famous  "Parson's  Cause,"  which  arose  from  an  attempt  of 
the  Virginians  to  pay  the  clergy  in  money  during  a  scarcity  of  tobacco.  See 
page  46. 


QUESTIONS    AND    EXERCISES  163 

6.  Whom  did  England  send  to  capture  Fort  Duquesne?  Why  was  his 
expedition  defeated?  What  happened  during  the  next  three  years  on  the 
western  frontier?     What  did  Washington  do  during  this  time? 

7.  Who  were  the  Acadians?  What  was  done  with  them?  What  poem 
describes  their  fate? 

8.  Who  became  the  EngHsh  leader  in  1757?  What  was  the  result  of  the 
change  in  leaders?  W^hat  part  did  the  colonies  take  in  the  French  and  Indian 
War? 

9.  How  did  the  EngHsh  finally  manage  to  capture  Fort  Duquesne?  What 
change  was  made  in  its  name?  Why  did  the  English  succeed  so  well  in  Amer- 
ica after  1758? 

ID.  Why  was  Quebec  so  hard  to  capture?  Who  commanded  the  French 
defense?     Who  led  the  English  attack?     How  did  Wolfe  capture  Quebec? 

11.  What  colonies  did  England  gain  as  a  result  of  the  Seven  Years'  War? 
What  European  country  came  into  possession  of  Louisiana?  Why  did  France 
give  up  Louisiana? 

12.  How  did  England  decide  to  use  the  western  territory  gained  during  the 
war  with  France?  What  colonies  also  claimed  these  lands  (see  p.  148)?  Why 
was  it  difficult  for  England  to  enforce  the  orders  against  settling  in  the  West? 
Why  did  England  wish  to  keep  white  settlers  from  the  West? 

13.  What  happened  during  the  French  and  Indian  War  to  offend  the  colo- 
nists and  arouse  them  against  the  mother  country?  Why  was  the  danger  from 
this  trouble  all  the  greater  now  that  France  no  longer  held  Canada? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Locate  on  an  outhne  map  the  Louisiana,  the  Illinois,  and  the  Canadian 
settlements  and  the  new  forts  on  the  Ohio  frontier.  Which  claim  to  the  Ohio 
country  do  you  think  was  the  better,  the  French  or  the  English?  Give  reasons 
for  your  opinion. 

2.  Write  a  paper  describing  Washington's  part  in  the  French  and  Indian 
War. 

Important  Dates : 

1749.   The  French   and  English  take  the  first  steps  toward  seizing  the 

Ohio  country. 
1755.    Braddock's  expedition. 
1759.   The  fall  of  Quebec. 
1763.   End  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  and  the  struggle  of  France  and 

England  for  colonies  in  the  New  World. 


CHAPTER  XV 
WHY   THE   ENGLISH   COLONISTS   BECAME   REVOLUTIONISTS 

After  the  War.  —  Occasions  of  dispute  between  the  colo- 
nies and  the  mother  country  were  not  Hkely  to  disappear 
with  the  end  of  the  French  and  Indian  War.  On  the 
contrary,"  they  were  bound  to  increase.  Money  was 
sorely  needed.  The  public  debt  of  Great  Britain  had  been 
doubled  in  seven  years.  If  the  laws  regulating  colonial 
trade  could  be  made  to  bring  more  revenue  into  the  British 
treasury,  they  would  certainly  be  enforced.  New  taxes  were 
probable. 

It  was  likely  that  the  government  would  grasp  the  reins 
of  colonial  management  more  firmly.  Three  new  colonies 
with  a  foreign  population,  besides  a  vast  Indian  territory, 
would  require  the  presence  of  soldiers.  The  British  fleet, 
which  had  covered  itself  with  glory  during  the  war,  must  do 
guard  duty  on  many  seas,  for  the  British  now,  if  never  before, 
ruled  an  empire.  Conquests  in  India,  as  well  as  in  America, 
gave  the  rulers  of  England  a  feehng  of  power  and  a  sense 
of  responsibiHty.  Here  was  the  danger.  If,  in  making  new 
plans  for  their  many  territories,  they  treated  the  colonists  as 
subjects,  rather  than  EngKshmen  with  rights  equal  to  their 
own,  the  triumph  over  France  might  be  turned  into  a  great 
disaster. 

Grenville's  Plan.  —  In  1763  George  Grenville,  a  new  prime 
minister,  decided  that  10,000  British  troops  must  be  kept  in 
America  and  that  the  colonies  should  be  required  to  pay  at 


COLONIAL   QUESTIONS 


i6s 


least  a  third  of  the  expense.  He  planned  to  raise  the  money 
chiefly  by  a  stamp  tax.  He  planned  also  to  enforce  thoroughly 
the  laws  regulating  trade,  and  to  change  the  Sugar  Act  so 
that  it  would  bring  in  revenue.  Like  many  other  English- 
men at  the  time,  he  forgot  that  the  colonists  had  paid  more 
than  their  share  in  the  recent  war  and  that  they  still  had  a 
part  of  their  war  debts  to  pay. 

Grenville  also  did  not  take  into  account  the  fact  that  the 
taxes  charged  in  English  ports  on  goods  sent  to  America  were 
really  paid  by  the  colonial  purchasers.^  He  and  the  other 
members  of  parliament  repre- 
sented chiefly  Enghsh  landholders 
and  merchants.  It  was  hardly 
fair  that  they  should  regulate- 
colonial  trade  in  such  a  way  as 
to  increase  their  profits,  and  at 
the  same  time  try  to  shift  the 
burden  of  taxation  from  their 
shoulders  to  those  of  the  colonists. 
But  they  could  not  be  expected 
to  see  this,  believing,  as  they  did, 
that  the  main  use  of  colonies  was 
to  increase  the  riches  of  the 
mother  country. 

The  king  of  England  was  George  III,  then  at  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  of  sixty  years.  He  was  shrewd  but  narrow- 
minded,  and  disliked  the  colonists  because  they  were  inchned 
to  manage  their  own  affairs.  He  heartily  approved  Grenville's 
plan.  As  many  members  of  parliament  were  chosen  through 
his  influence,  they  voted  as  he  wished.  All  through  the 
troubles  with  America  the  ''king's  friends"  were  on  the 
wrong  side  of  nearly  every  question. 

^  In  the  eighteenth  century  all  countries  collected  export  as  well  as  import 
duties. 


King  George  III 


i66  WHY  THE  COLONISTS  BEGAN  THE  REVOLUTION 

Stamp  Act.  —  The  new  Sugar  Act  of  1764  did  not  excite 

the  colonists  as  much  as  the  news  that  parHament  was  to 

introduce  a  stamp  tax.     The  colonists  denied  the  right  of 

parHament   to   tax   them   directly.^     This   right,   they   said, 

belonged  to  their  own  legislatures,  where 

their  representatives  sat. 

It   was    of    little   use  for   the  Enghsh 

officers  to  reply  that  the  colonists  were  as 

much   represented  in  parliament  as    the 

people  of  Manchester  or  Birmingham  or 

other  cities  in  England.     Such  arguments 

did    not   convince    the    colonists.      They 

.  ^  ,       believed  that   a   legislature  which   voted 

A  Stamp  of  1765  ^ 

taxes  must  be  chosen  by  the  persons  who 
paid  the  taxes.  They  declared  that  there  should  be,  ''No 
taxation  without  representation."  In  England  multitudes  of 
tax-payers  could  not  vote.  If  a  town  centuries  before  had 
not  been  big  enough  to  send  members  to  parliament,  it  could 
not  now  send  members,  however  big  it  was.  At  the  same 
time  towns  which  once  had  received  the  right  to  send  mem- 
bers and  had  grown  small  did  not  lose  the  right.  If  now 
the  same  lord  owned  all  the  property  in  a  town  or  in  three 
or  four  of  them,  he  chose  the  members.  Scores  of  members 
were  in  reality  named  by  great  lords  or  by  the  king.  The 
colonists  would  not  have  endured  a  legislature  Hke  that.  Their 
objection,  however,  was  that  parHament  did  not  represent 
them  in  the  sense  in  which  they  understood  representation. 

The  Stamp  Act  was  passed  in  1765.  It  was  modeled  upon 
a  statute  then  successfully  enforced  in  England.  Stamps 
varying  in  value  from  one  cent  to  $50  must  be  placed  upon 

1  In  1765  the  colonists  did  not  object  so  much  to  indirect  taxes  hke  those 
in  the  Sugar  Act  as  to  direct  taxes  like  those  in  the  Stamp  Act.  But  after 
the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  they  became  convinced  that  any  tax  levied  by 
parliament,  instead  of  by  their  own  legislatures,  was  injurious  to  them. 


RESISTANCE    TO   THE    STAMP    ACT  167 

every  almanac,  newspaper,  pamphlet,  marriage  Hcense,  and 
college  diploma,  as  well  as  upon  a  multitude  of  legal  docu- 
ments.    Officials  were  to  be  appointed  to  sell  the  stamps. 

Resistance  to  the  Stamp  Act.  —  Patrick  Henry  of  Virginia 
and  James  Otis  of  Massachusetts  were  again  the  boldest 
advocates  of  colonial  rights. 
Henry's  resolutions  against 
parHamentary  taxation,  passed 
in  the  Virginia  assembly,  were 
copied  in  colony  after  colony. 
Town -meetings  and  county 
assemblies,  ministers  in  their 
sermons,  and  newspapers  in 
their  editorials,  joined  in  the 
effort  to  awaken  the  whole 
people. 

A   storm  of  declarations   of 
.  ,  ,         .  Patrick  Henry 

rights,  remonstrances,  and  peti- 
tions swept  the  country.  The  legislatures  of  Connecticut, 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  South  Carolina, 
and  Virginia  protested  against  the  Stamp  Act.  James  Otis 
suggested  a  general  Congress  of  delegates  from  the  colonies. 
In  October,  1765,  representatives  from  nine  met  in  the  city 
hall  at  New  York.  Other  colonies  sent  letters  of  sympathy. 
The  Congress  at  New  York,  usually  called  the  Stamp  Act 
Congress,  decided  to  publish  a  statement  of  the  colonial  side 
of  the  controversy  and  to  petition  the  king  and  parHament. 
Franklin's  device,  the  wriggHng  snake  with  the  motto,  "Join 
or  die,"  reappeared  at  the  head  of  the  newspapers.  Such 
events  showed  that  a  spirit  of  union  was  growing  rapidly. 
Long  before  the  Congress  met  at  New  York,  the  people  had 
decided  the  fate  of  the  Stamp  Act. 

The  merchants  of  the  chief  towns  canceled  their  orders 
and  refused  to  buy  any  more  goods  of  British  make  until 


i68  WHY  THE  COLONISTS  BEGAN  THE  REVOLUTION 

parliament  should  repeal  the  Stamp  Act.  Women  bound 
themselves  to  wear  nothing  but  homespun,  and  conducted 
spinning  matches  where  they  offered  prizes  for  the  fastest 
and  best  work.  Many  zealous  patriots  in  Boston  and  Phila- 
delphia circulated  pledges  to  eat  no  lamb  in  order  to  increase 
the  amount  of  wool.  Secret  societies,  which  called  themselves 
Sons  of  Liberty,  laid  plans  to  destroy  the  stamps  and  drive 
the  distributors  from  office.  Posters  or  handbills  on  the  doors 
or  street-corners  threatened  all  who  tried  to  sell  stamps  or 
to  use  them.  The  Sons  of  Liberty  of  New  York  scattered 
broadcast  a  handbill  which  said,  ''The  first  man  that  either 
distributes  or  makes  use  of  Stampt  Paper  let  him  take  Care 
of  His  House,  Person,  and  Effects."  The  Stamp  Act  was  to 
go  into  effect  on  the  first  day  of  November,  1765.  When 
the  day  arrived  the  stamp  distributors  had  quietly  resigned 
and  no  stamps  could  be  found. 

Repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  1766.  —  The  refusal  to  buy  or 
use  British-made  goods  or  to  trade  with  British  merchants 
—  a  sort  of  boycott  —  accomplished  all  that  the  colonists 
hoped  for.  The  merchants,  manufacturers,  and  even  the 
artisans,  in  Great  Britain  soon  began  to  suffer  from  the  loss 
of  colonial  business.  Parliament  hesitated  to  drive  the  col- 
onies into  open  rebellion  and  ruin  its  own  merchants  besides. 
In  March,  1766,  the  famous  Stamp  Act  was  repealed. 

The  news  of  the  repeal  was  received  with  rejoicing  in  Eng- 
land and  America  alike.  Bells  were  rung  and  banquets  were 
held  in  London  as  well  as  in  the  chief  colonial  towns.  As 
Pitt  had  urged  repeal,  the  colonists,  forgetting  his  enforce- 
ment of  the  Sugar  Act,  displayed  his  portrait  in  shop  windows. 
New  York  and  South  Carolina  voted  him  a  statue.  Even  the 
king,  though  opposed  to  repeal,  enjoyed  a  brief  popularity. 
The  Philadelphia  Quakers  decided  to  celebrate  his  birthday 
by  dressing  in  new  suits  of  EngHsh  make,  giving  their  home- 
spun clothing  to  the  poor. 


STAMP    ACT    REPEALED 


169 


New  difficulties  soon  arose  over  the  Quartering  Act,  which 
required  the  colonies  to  furnish  the  royal  troops  stationed  in 
the  different  places  with  lodgings,  fuel,  and  food.  The  colonial 
leaders  considered  this  a  mere  substitute  for  taxation.  New 
York,  Boston,  and  Charleston  refused  to  comply.  The  dis- 
pute with  New  York  lasted  three  years.  Its  governor  refused 
to  allow  the  legislature  to  sit  until  the  colony  finally  yielded 
and  furnished  the  soldiers  with  quarters. 

The  Townshend  Acts.  —  In  1767,  barely  a  year  after  the 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  parliament  under  the  leadership  of 
Charles  Townshend  passed  other  acts  to  raise  money  from 
America.  The  acts  put  taxes  on  glass,  lead,  paper,  and  tea 
shipped  to  the  colonies.  Besides  these  duties,  the  colonists 
were  still  paying,  as  required  by  the  Sugar  Act,  taxes  on 
sugar,  molasses,  coffee,  wine,  and  indigo.  Altogether  the 
list  was  a  long  one,  and  the  colo- 
nial leaders  were  convinced  that 
parliament  intended  to  estabhsh  a 
permanent  system  of  taxation. 
They  liked  the  law  still  less  when 
they  were  told  that  the  income 
from,  the  new  taxes  would  be  used 
partly  to  pay  the  salaries  of  colo- 
nial governors  and  judges,  who 
would  thus  be  more  independent 
of  the  colonial  legislatures. 

Resistance    to    the    Townshend 
Duties.  — Samuel  Adams,  a  citizen  ^^''^^^  ^^^'^^ 

of  Boston,  like  Otis,  now  revived  the  pledges  against  buying 
or  using  British-made  goods.  ''We  will  form,"  he  ex- 
claimed, "an  immediate  and  universal  combination  to  eat 
nothing,  drink  nothing,  wear  nothing,  imported  from  Great 
Britain."  Washington  wrote  to  his  agent  in  London  telHng 
him  not  to  send  any  articles  taxed  by  parHament,  for,  said  he, 


lyo  WHY  THE  COLONISTS  BEGAN  THE  REVOLUTION 


{^  A  LIST    of    ihe   Names    of     tho/e  "^ 

},  whoAUDAnousiYcontinueiocounterafl  theUNiT-  Jj 
ED  Sentiments  of  ihe  Body  of  Merchants  thro'out  T, 
NORTH- AMERICA  ;  \>y  imporiing  BriiiOi  Goodi  ^ 
contrary  to  the  Agreement. h 


h 

h 

h 
b 
h 
h 

^ 

h 
h 
h 
h 
h 
h 
h 
h 
b 
b 
b 
b 
b 
b 
b 

i, 

^    (Oppodte  the  Old  Bri^ 

b       J/rael  IViUiams,  E(q;  6'  Son 


"John  Bernard,  \ 

(In  King  StrKt,  almoft  oppofite  Vemon'jHead.  ^ 

lames  McMaJlers,  'b 

''  •*  (On  Treat*.  Wharf.  ^ 

Tatrick  McMajlerSy  b 

(Oppofite  the  Sign  of  the  Lamb.  \> 

John  Mem,  \ 

(Oppofite  the  Whiie-Horfc,  and  in  K.iog-Street.  ^ 

I^athaniel  Rogers,  b 

(Oppofite  Mr.  Henderfon  Inche*  Store  lower  End  b 

K.ng-Streft.  b 

William  Jachfon,  \ 

At  thf  BrartnHcad,Cornhin,neartheTown-Hotife.  ■g 

T'beophilus  Lillie,  ^ 

(Near  Mr.P.^mbtrion  »Meeting-Honfe,Norlh-End.  ^ 

John  Taylor,  '  _  % 

(Nearly  oppoliie  the  Heart  andCrown  inCornhill.  ^ 


(rxeariv  oppome  tin;  /no..  a..-»-.---  ...- 

yJme  &  Elizabeth  Cummings, 

ppodte  the  Old  Brick.  Me«"">gHoufe,  all  of 


(Trader! 

h  And,  Henrj  Barnes, 

b  (Trader  i. 


the  Town  of  Hatfield, 
thf  Town  of  M      loTO 


A  Boycotting  Poster 
Reduced  facsimile 


*'  I  have  very  heartily  entered  into  an  association  not  to  import 
any  article  which  now  is,  or  hereafter  shall  be,  taxed  for  this 
purpose  until  the  said  act  or  acts  are  repealed." 

The  senior  class  at  Harvard  College  agreed,  in  1768,  to 
graduate   ''dressed  altogether  in   the  manufactures  of   the 

country."  The  students  of 
Rhode  Island  College,  now 
Brown  University,  followed 
their  example  the  next  year. 
Some  colonists  resorted  to 
violence  in  resisting  the  hated 
taxes.  In  New  England  towns, 
especially,  mobs  of  town 
toughs  on  more  than  one  occa- 
sion  roughly  handled  mer- 
chants who  ventured  to  import 
British  goods.  Conflicts  be- 
tween customs  officers  and 
mobs  were  frequent.  Such 
acts  of  lawlessness  went  un- 
punished, for  no  jury  could 
be  found  which  would  convict  the  guilty. 

Boston  Massacre,  March  5,  1770.  —  In  1768  two  British 
regiments  were  sent  to  Boston,  where  attacks  upon  customs 
officers  had  been  most  serious.  Benjamin  Frankhn  had 
warned  the  king's  advisers  that  if  soldiers  were  sent  to  Amer- 
ica to  enforce  taxation  they  would  not  find  a  rebelHon  but 
might  make  one.  Their  presence  angered  the  citizens.  The 
rougher  men  and  boys  lost  no  opportunity  of  insulting  the 
soldiers.  The  wonder  is  that  no  serious  clash  took  place  for 
nearly  two  years.  But  on  the  evening  of  March  5,  1770,  a 
mob  began  pelting  a  sentry  in  front  of  the  custom  house,  and 
when  several  guards  came  to  his  rescue  knocked  one  of  them 
down.     The  soldiers  thereupon  fired  into  the  crowd,  killing 


TAX   ON   TEA 


171 


five  and  wounding  six.     The  colonists  called  the  affray  the 
''Bloody  Massacre"  or  the  ''Boston  Massacre." 

Tax  on  Tea.  —  The  pledges  not  to  use  British  goods  were 
so  effective  that  within  a  year  the  colonial  trade  decreased 
nearly  $4,000,000. 
Parhament  yielded 
again  and  repealed 
all  duties  provided 
for  in  the  Town- 
shend  acts  except 
a  tax  of  six  cents 
a  pound  on  tea. 
It  was  thought 
that  the  colonists 
would  not  object 
to  one  small  tax, 
and  that  they 
would  become  ac- 
customed to  pay- 
ing taxes  levied  by 
parliament.  This  was  another  blunder,  for  the  colonists 
objected  to  taxed  tea  as  strongly  as  before.  The  women 
of  Edenton,  the  colonial  capital  of  North  Carolina,  banded 
together  to  use  no  more  of  the  "pernicious  herb."  Sassa- 
fras or  raspberry  tea,  they  declared,  was  better  than  the 
bitterness  in  taxed  tea. 

Committees  of  Correspondence.  —  Many  of  the  colonists 
were  becoming  weary  of  such  constant  strife.  If  the  Brit- 
ish government  had  not  made  new  blunders  every  year  or 
two,  perhaps  the  spirit  of  resistance  would  have  died  out. 
Meanwhile  Samuel  Adams  and  other  Boston  patriots  organ- 
ized Committees  of  Correspondence  in  the  Massachusetts 
towns  in  order  to  keep  the  acts  of  the  government  constantly 
before  the  people.     At  this  time  some  Rhode  Islanders  burned 


The  Boston  Massacre 
From  an  engraving  by  Paul  Revere 


172   WHY  THE  COLONISTS  BEGAN  THE  REVOLUTION 

the  British  revenue  vessel  Gas  pee,  and  the  government  tried 
to  find  them  in  order  that  they  might  be  taken  to  England 
for  trial.  Such  a  threat  aroused  the  Virginia  assembly,  and 
it  proposed  the  formation  of  Committees  of  Correspondence 
TO   THE  between   the  colo- 

DELAWARE 


PILOTS. 


nies.  In  this  way 
the  machinery  for 
organized  resist- 
ance   was    being 

TH  E  Regard  we  have  for  your  Chitiaerj,  and  our  Defire  to  prouvote  four  CrCatcd. 
futuxe  Pea^e  and  Safety,  a/t  ihc  Occaiioa  of  thii  Third  Addrefi  to  you 
r«  out  fecond  Letter  we  acquainted  you,  that  the  Tea  Ship  was  a  Three  ijOStOU  i.63. 

Decker  ,•  We  are  now  in/oiroed  by  good  Auihoncy,  fhe  is  not  a  Three  Decker,  but 

an  old  Uacl  Ship,  xuuhout  ii  Head,  or  any  Omanenu  PflftV   ' '   In     I  7  *?  "i 

Thx  CapUunaa-jhanfaifeWow,  and  a  bule  o^/ZMitte  wilhai  —  So  much  the  worfe  -i.  j 

fo7  hm-.  -For,  Co  Lxt  uhe,idu7ufy,  We  fhalJ  heave  him   KeeJ  out,  and  fee  that  parliament  maOe   di 
Tm  Bottom  be  well  Hred,  fcrubbd  and  paid,.-  His  Upper- Works  too,  will  have  an 

Overhix'Img--  and  as  it  is  fud,  he  has  agood  dtai    oi  fluxckWork.  about  him,  We  T^lan    nHoiTf  tVl  P    fPJI 

will  like  particular  Care  that  fuch Part  of  him  ondergoev  a  thorough  Rummaging  piau    aUVJUL  LllC    LCd 

Wt  have   a  (bll  wrji  Account  of  kn  Ojuier  .-  for  Jt  14  (ii<l,  the  Ship  Pou-Y  was       tradC   Which    almCd 
bought  by  hitn  en  Puipofi?,  to  make  a  Penny  of  tn  ,  and  that  Ae  and  C^iain  Ayres 
were  well  ad  viied  of  the  Rifque  they  would  ruD,  tn  thus  danng  to  mfuk  andabufe       tonrrOTTTnH^h  thrPP 

Ta^in /lyrcr  was  here  in  iho  Time  of  the  Stamp-Act.  and  ought  to  have  known  thlUffS tempt  the 

OUT  People  better,  than  to  hare  expefled  we  would  be  fo  mean  as  to  fuffer  his  roUen'  ^  ^ 

TEA  to  befunnel'd  down  our  Throats,  with  the/'ar/wwi«^j/)u/X'"«x«i'*^^"-  rnlor>l<Nt<^        tCi       b  11  V 

■wi  Iniow  him -well,  and   have  calculated  to<a  Gill  and  a  Feather,  bow  mucMt  1    •     1 

wjl  requite  to  Ct  him  for  an  ^m<7(ca;i  Exhiuion.     And  we  hop«,  not  one  of  your  tCa    On   WhlCh   Si    taX 
Body  will  behave  lb  Ul,  as  to  obhge  us  to  clap  him  m  the  Cart  aiong  Side  of  the 

^'-^^  was  paid,  put  an 

We  mu/l  repeat,  that  the  SHIP    POLtYwanoU  black  %>,  of  about  Two  •  i  •       i 

Hundred  and  Fifty  Tons  burthen   tnuJunu  a  Had,  and  uuJunU  Ottuviwiu,—  and,  that      PnO       tO      rOlOnifjl 
CA?TAl\i    AY  Vil.S   IX  ».  ihukchuTjiy  mow. -  As  fiach,  Tajo:  Case  to  k.  kj  ±  yj  i.i.  1.  u,  1. 

AyoiD  TH£w.  ^^^^  ^^^  F„,^i,s.  smuggHug  In  tea,^ 

Th.  COMMITTIE  roa  TARRING  ...  rEATHERING,  ^^^    J^^J        ^^it   EaSt 

^.iUijMtt.  HUmia-  J,  mj.  ^ 

How  Philadelphia  Citizens  prevented  India      Company 

THE  Landing  of  Tea  geH  its   tg^.       The 

Reduced  facsimile  .,  ,       , 

company  then  had 
17,000,000  pounds  of  tea  in  its  warehouses.  The  plan  was 
to  permit  the  company  to  send  a  certain  amount  of  tea  to 
America  without  first  selHng  it  to  the  English  merchants. 
Thus  the  price  would  be  very  low  in  the  colonies  because 
the  merchant's  profits  would  not  be  included.      This  would 

^  At  this  time  most  of  the  tea  used  in  the  colonies  was  smuggled  in.  Colo- 
nial vessels  regularly  bought  tea  in  the  East  Indies  or  in  Holland  and  found 
ways  of  slipping  it  into  the  ports  without  paying  the  British  tax. 


PUNISHMENT   OF   BOSTON  173 

make  the  colonists  forget  about  the  tax.  At  the  same  time 
the  smuggler  would  lose  the  business. 

Several  ships  loaded  with  tea  were  sent  to  Boston,  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Charleston.  The  news  aroused 
great  indignation  in  the  colonies.  In  Philadelphia  and 
New  York  committees  of  citizens 
persuaded  the  captains  of  the 
ships  to  return  to  London  with- 

,,  T  T  ANNO  DECIMO    QUARTO 

out  entering  the  harbors. 

At  Charleston  the  royal  ofhcers  G^Or^li  III.  RcfilS. 

stored  the  tea  in  the  cellars   of 

the  custom  house.     There  it  re- 

mained.     No  agent  of  the  East  cap.  xix. 

India  Company  dared  to  pay  the  ^nAa  to  difcominue,  in  fuch  Mariner,  ai^d  for 

^        J  •«-      -'  lucn.  Time  as   are  therein  menlioncd,    the 

duty  and  offer  it  for  sale.     Three     landmg  and  difcharging,  kdmg  orihipping, 

''  of  Goods,  Wares,  and  Merchandile,    at  the 

years  later,   when  war   had    begun.         Town,  and  within  the  Harbour,  of  ^^A;.,  in 

the  Province  oi  Mafachufa's  Bay,  m  North 

South  Carolma  sold  the  tea  to     jimerkcu 

DaV  war   exnenSeS.  I'^??^^^?^i'^<*fi'^<£3  6  langeroujar  (ff&mmotioti* 

^    •)  ^  '  ^^^^^  '^  ^^  'infuti-ettiona  baoe  been  foraentett 

In   Boston    the   royal   officials  ?r|^M?  T  ,'r^'' '"^  T5r/r  .*''.^°"' '"* 

^)i^\JUO,  tbe  Ipio'uince  of  MaQkhufets  Bay,  m 
ixrprp   Hpfprminprl    tn   lanH    tViP  tPfl      §.j|^^^  New  England,  6^  5ioer;»  in  aitettelj  IPn-- 

were  aeterminea  to  lana  uic  ted.   «-^i3fic^iiift^^„tee^b»frf,onof^i>©ajrtt-« 

A,  IT  -•  „T ij     ^otiemment,  ana  to  <()e  uttre  ©etouftion  of  Jbe  jiubiitA 

great    public  meetmg  was  held    j^eace,  ana  Voob  flDiUfc  or  t^e  a-t.  rowft;  mii.sicj, 
j^i        /-M  1    r>        ii      -\  IT       J.'  TT  <!rommotion? flitD  anrutteaioivs cataln  tjaluablc (ffargoe* 

m  tne  (Jla  boutn  Meetmg  rlouse.  orrm.  5ein^t{)tipjopett}.oft?>eEaainiacompany, 

•anti  «a  3BoaiSj  ttttain  'Ut!&\s  l^Jing:  \mltiin  tlje  ^a^  o) 

The   leaders    failed   to    convince  <»  60a  oarbo* 

the  governor  that  the  ships  must     First  Page  of  the  Boston 

^x.  -.     1       .  Port  Bill 

be  sent  away.  Night  having  come  ^^^^^^^  j^^^i^ii, 

on,    the    crowd    rushed    to    the 

wharves.  Forty  or  fifty  men,  disguised  as  Indians,  boarded 
the  ships.  By  nine  o'clock  every  chest  of  tea  had  been 
broken  open  and  the  contents  thrown  into  the  sea. 

Punishment  of  Boston.  —  The  royal  government  now 
attempted  to  punish  Boston  as  an  object  lesson  to  all  the 
colonies.  The  port  was  closed  and  the  custom  house  removed 
to  Salem  until  the  citizens  should  pay  the  East  India  Com- 
pany about  $7 5, GOO,  the  value  of  the  tea  which  had  been 


174  WHY  THE  COLONISTS  BEGAN  THE  REVOLUTION 

destroyed.  A  little  later  the  government  of  the  colony  was 
so  changed  that  the  colonists  could  not  hold  a  town  meet- 
ing without  the  governor's  consent.  Their  juries  also  were 
selected  by  sheriffs  appointed  by  the  governor.  These  laws 
were  called  the  "Intolerable  Acts."  ^  They  excited  the  Mas- 
sachusetts people  so  much  that  General  Gage,  the  new  gov- 
ernor, who  had  arrived  with  four  more  regiments,  was  obhged 
to  fortify  the  narrow  neck  of  land  which  connected  Boston 
with  the  surrounding  country. 

The  distress  of  Boston,  with  its  trade  ruined,  stirred  the 
sympathy  of  the  other  colonies.  Salem  offered  the  free  use 
of  its  wharves  and  warehouses  to  the  Boston  merchants.  The 
towns  of  Massachusetts  and  other  colonies  sent  supplies. 
Israel  Putnam,  a  veteran  of  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
drove  to  Boston  a  flock  of  sheep  from  his  Connecticut  town. 
Washington  headed  a  subscription  in  Fairfax  County,  Vir- 
ginia, with  a  gift  of  $250,  promising  also  to  raise  a  thousand 
men,  maintain  them  at  his  own  expense,  and  march  to  the 
relief  of  Boston. 

The  Continental  Congress,  1774.  —  Parliament  and  King 
George  had  counted  on  deahng  with  Massachusetts  alone. 
Never  was  a  graver  mistake  made.  The  other  colonies 
declared  that  Boston  was  ''suffering  in  the  common  cause." 
The  members  of  the  Virginia  assembly,  Washington,  Patrick 
Henry,  and  Thomas  Jefferson  among  them,  suggested  that 
a  general  Congress,  like  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  of  1765, 
should  be  held.  The  Virginians  sent  their  plan  to  the  other 
colonies  and  invited  Massachusetts  to  name  the  date  and 
place.     On   September   5,    1774,    the   Congress   met  in'  the 

^  In  1774  the  colonists  were  also  excited  by  the  passage  of  the  Quebec  Act, 
for  the  government  of  that  province;  first,  because  the  province  was  extended 
southward  to  the  Ohio  River,  notwithstanding  the  land  claims  of  the  colonies 
on  the  coast,  and  second,  because  no  provision  was  made  for  a  provincial  assem- 
bly representing  the  inhabitants. 


FIRST    CONTINENTAL    CONGRESS 


175 


Carpenters'  Hall  in  Philadelphia.     It  was  called  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,  and  included  delegates  from  twelve  colonies. 

The  Continental  Congress,  like  the  Stamp  Act  Congress, 
drew  up  a  declaration  of  the  rights  of  the  colonies  and  a 
statement  of  their  griev- 
ances. Their  hst  of  griev- 
ances had  grown  much 
longer.  The  '^  Intolerable 
Acts"  were  called  ''un- 
poKtic,  unjust,  and  cruel." 
Two  decisions  of  the  Con- 
gress were  particularly  im- 
portant. By  the  first  the 
members  agreed  to  sus- 
pend all  trade  with  Great 
Britain,  No  one  was  either 
to  import  or  consume  tea 
or  any  other  British  goods. 
After  one  year  no  Ameri- 
can should  sell  or  export 
his  goods  to  England. 
Committees  should  be  ap- 
pointed in  every  county  or  town  to  see  that  the  agreement 
was  faithfully  kept.  By  the  second  decision  Congress,  when 
it  adjourned,  proposed  that  a  second  Continental  Congress 
should  meet  in  May,   1775. 

Two  Parties  in  America.  —  Many  colonists  thought  that 
resistance  to  the  English  government  had  gone  too  far.  They 
believed  that  parhament  in  repealing  the  Stamp  Act  and  most 
of  the  taxes  in  the  Townshend  acts  had  treated  the  colonies 
fairly.  They  also  thought  that  the  frequent  attacks  on  the 
EngHsh  officials,  who  tried  to  enforce  the  laws,  justified  meas- 
ures like  the  Intolerable  Acts.  The  merchants  had  grown 
tired  of  the  steady  loss  of  trade.     Among  the  friends  of  Great 


Carpenters'  Hall,  Philadelphia,  1774 
Where  the  first  Continental  Congess  met 


176  WHY  THE  COLONISTS  BEGAN  THE  REVOLUTION 

Britain  in  the  colonies  were,  of  course,  many  office  holders. 
All  who  sided  with  Great  Britain  were  called  loyalists  or 
Tories.  Their  opponents  called  themselves  patriots,  and 
American  historians  have  usually  given  this  name  to  them. 
The  English  leaders  had  other  names  for  them  —  dema- 
gogues and  rebels. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  were  the  colonies  and  mother  country  more  likely  to  have  trouble 
after  the  French  and  Indian  War?  What  was  the  chief  danger  when  England 
began  making  new  plans? 

2.  What  was  Grenville's  plan?     Why  was  this  unfair  to  the  colonists? 

3.  What  was  the  main  objection  of  the  colonists  to  the  Stamp  Act?  How 
were  many  members  of  parliament  chosen?  Who  voted  for  members  of  the 
legislatures  in  the  colonies? 

4.  How  did  the  colonists  prevent  the  enforcement  of  the  Stamp  Act? 
Who  were  their  leaders  in  resisting  it? 

5.  Why  did  parliament  repeal  the  Stamp  Act?  What  grounds  of  dispute 
still  remained? 

6.  What  taxes  did  Townshend  add  to  those  already  in  force?  Make  a 
list  of  the  taxes  that  parliament  required  of  the  colonies  during  1768.  Why 
did  the  colonies  dislike  Townshend's  acts  even  more  than  Grenville's? 

7.  What  methods  did  the  colonists  use  to  resist  Townshend's  duties?  Why 
did  parliament  send  soldiers  to  Boston?  What  warning  did  Franklin  give  the 
king's  advisers? 

8.  Why  did  parliament  repeal  most  of  the  Townshend  duties?  What 
taxes  did  the  colonists  still  have  to  pay?  What  method  did  Samuel  Adams 
invent  in  order  to  inform  the  colonists  about  the  acts  of  parliament?  What 
addition  did  Virginia  propose  to  his  method?  Why  did  Virginia  make  its 
proposal? 

9.  What  change  did  parhament  make  in  1773  with  regard  to  tea?  How 
did  the  colonists  prevent  the  payment  of  the  tea  tax? 

10.  How  did  parliament  try  to  punish  Boston  for  the  destruction  of  the 
tea?     What  steps  did  the  other  colonies  take  to  aid  Boston? 

11.  What  two  decisions  did  the  Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia  form? 
How  was  the  first  decision  or  agreement  to  be  enforced? 

12.  Did  all  American  colonists  agree  with  those  leaders  who  resisted  the 
acts  of  parliament?  What  names  were  given  to  those  who  sided  with  Great 
Britain?  To  those  who  supported  the  colonial  resistance?  What  had  parlia- 
ment done  which  the  loyalists  believed  should  satisfy  the  patriots?  What  acts 
of  the  patriots  did  the  loyahsts  condemn? 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 


177 


EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  acts  of  parliament  mentioned  in  this  chapter  and  in 
previous  chapters,  especially  Chapter  XIII,  which  were  the  occasion  of 
disputes  with  the  colonies. 

2.  Who  can  vote  in  your  state  today  for  members  of  the  legislature?  Who 
could  have  voted  in  the  colonies  for  the  members  of  the  legislatures? 

3.  Find  out,  by  asking  some  one  who  knows,  how  taxes  are  raised  in  the 
Philippine  Islands  under  the  United  States  government.  Do  the  people 
of  the  Philippine  Islands  have  any  grievances  like  those  of  the  American 
colonies? 

Important  Dates : 

1765.   ParHament  under  Grenville's  leadership  passes  the  Stamp  Act. 
1767.   Townshend  places  further  taxes  on  the  colonies. 
1774.   Meeting  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  Philadelphia. 


Jiin  Jt/ifti, 


^'S- 


^ — ^.X 


2.  ^-^"■'^■i 


The  Petition  sent  by  the  Colonists  to  King 
George  III 

The  rejection  of  which  led  to  the  Revolution 

Reduced   facsimile   of   original   in   the   British    Public 

Record  Office,  London 


CHAPTER  X\T 
THE   OUTBREAK   OF  WAR 

Preparations  for  War.  —  One  of  the  consequences  of  the 
Intolerable  Acts  in  1774  was  that  the  Massachusetts  House 
of  Representatives  reorganized  itself  as  a  Provincial  Con- 
gress. A  committee  of  safety  which  it  appointed  began  to 
prepare  for  armed  resistance.  All  over  New  England  com- 
panies of  militia  were  formed  and  were  drilled  regularly. 
Every  fourth  man  was  pledged  to  take  the  field  at  a 
minute's  notice  and  was  called  the  ''minute-man."  Mili- 
tary stores  were  collected.  Other  colonies  also  appointed 
committees  of  safety  and  prepared  for  a  struggle. 

Early  in  September  it  looked  as  if  war  would  begin  at 
once.  General  Gage  sent  troops  to  seize  300  barrels  of  pow- 
der stored  a  few.  miles  from  Boston.  The  report  spread  that 
the  soldiers  had  killed  six  colonists.  Before  it  was  disproved 
40,000  men  had  seized  their  guns  and  started  for  Boston.  A 
similar  expedition  in  April,  1775,  ^^^  ^^  fighting. 

Lexington  and  Concord.  —  General  Gage  wished  to  destroy 
the  mihtary  stores  which  the  colonists  had  collected  at  Con- 
cord, eighteen  miles  northwest  of  Boston.  Every  effort  was 
made  to  keep  the  expedition  a  secret.  It  left  Boston  late 
at  night  on  April  18,  and  marched  by  unfrequented  paths 
until  well  on  the  way  to  Lexington  and  Concord.  The  Bos- 
ton ''patriots,"  among  them  Dr.  Joseph  Warren,  heard  of 
the  plan  early  in  the  evening,  and  sent  messengers  to  warn 
the   colonists.     Paul   Revere  was    one   of    the   messengers. 


LEXINGTON  AND   CONCORD 


179 


Before  leaving  he  asked  a  friend  to  hang  two  lanterns  in 
the  tower  of  the  North  Church  as  a  signal  to  patriots  in 
Charlestown  that  the  British  had  started. 

Revere  and  other  messengers  were  soon  riding  madly 
through  the  country-side  calling  the  villagers  to  arms.  The 
ringing  of  bells,  the  beating  of  drums,  and  the  firing  of  guns 
told  the  British  soldiers  that  the  secret  was  out.  They 
reached  Lexington,  twelve  miles  on  their  way  to  Concord, 


The  Battle  at  Lexington,  April  19,  1775 
After  an  engraving  made  by  two  Continental  militia-men  who  were  in  the  battle 

just  as  day  was  breaking.  On  the  village  green  stood  fifty 
or  sixty  minute-men.  Resistance  was  out  of  the  question  and 
their  leader  ordered  them  to  withdraw.  But  in  the  confusion 
a  shot  was  fired,  and  soon  the  firing  became  general.  The 
colonial  militia  retreated  after  eight  of  their  number  were 
killed  and  ten  wounded.  Only  one  or  two  of  the  British 
were  wounded. 

At  Concord  the  British  found  few  stores,  because  most  of 
these  had  been  hidden  securely  or  removed  to  neighboring 
towns.  They  destroyed  thirty  or  forty  barrels  of  flour,  spiked 
two  or  three  cannon,  and  threw  some  cannon  balls  into  a  mill- 


l8o  THE  OUTBREAK  OF  WAR 

pond.  Meanwhile  the  minute-men  were  assembHng  rapidly 
on  the  hills  about  the  town.  A  large  body  soon  attacked  and 
drove  off  the  British  soldiers  who  had  been  stationed  at  the 
North  Bridge. 

A  Disastrous  Retreat.  —  Fighting  began  in  earnest  about 
noon  when  the  British  started  on  their  return  march  to  Bos- 

^^z  Salem  ^ztit  •^^^-    ^^^^  ^^^^^^   ^^^'y  ^'^^^ 

Salem,  Maffachufeus,  April  25,  lyTi —   house,  or  stoue  Wall  the  mmute- 

The  Britifh  pillaged  almolt  every  houfe  they  mCn     aud    farmers     shot    at     thc 

paffed   by,  breaking  and   deftroying  doors, 

windows,  glaffes   etc    and  carrying  off  cloth-  COlumU  of  SOldlcrS.        Thc  march 

ing  and  other  valuable  etiects.      It  appeared 

to  be  their  defign  to  burn  and  deftroy  all  y^^^     gOOU     chaUffed     iutO    B,     dls- 

before  them;   and  nothing  but  our  vigorous  <-> 

Frtti„rpri"t«„1i„r'"°But.''hX:!    orderly  flight.     Reinforcements 

age  barbarity  exercifed  upon  the  bodies  of  f..^.^      Tir\ci^r\n     Tviof      fVic»  'Ri-ifi'c.'U 

our  unfortunate  brethren  who  fell,  is  almoft  IfOm     iJOStOn     mCt     tnC  iintlSn 

incredible;      not    contented    with    f hooting  1.    t         •        a.                  Tt     j.                      •  n 

down  the  unarmed,  aged,  and  infirm,  they  at    LCXmgtOn.          B\lt    SO  rapidly 

difregarded  the  cries  of  the  wounded,  killing  t  1      .^               •!•    •                 i                          ^ 

them  without  mercy,  and  mangling  their  dlQ  tJie  milltia  gatUCr  OU  the 
bodies  in  the  moft  fhocking  manner. 

Part  of  the  Account  of  the  ^OUte  that  the  whole  body  of 
Battles  of  Lexington  and  Con-  British  soldiers  barely  escaped 
cord  in  a  Colonial  Newspaper  -r^      .  .  -,  -, 

capture.       Panic-stricken    and 

exhausted,  they  found  refuge  at  nightfall  under  the  guns  of 
the  British  ships  near  Charlestown. 

Meaning  of  Lexington  and  Concord.  —  The  losses  on  both 
sides  in  this  struggle  were  heavy,  although  the  British  losses 
were  three  times  those  of  the  colonists.  The  chances  of  a 
peaceful  settlement  of  the  controversy  between  parliament 
and  the  colonies  were  now  slight.  Blood  had  been  shed  and 
the  fighting  spirit  was  increased  by  the  tales  spread  in  Eng- 
land and  the  colonies.  The  colonists  were  told  that  the 
British  had  begun  the  battle  and,  besides,  had  destroyed 
property  and  maltreated  families  along  their  route.  The 
English  heard  that  the  wrongs  were  all  on  the  other  side.  It 
was  clear,  at  all  events,  that  the  colonial  mihtia  would  fight 
to  defend  their  rights.  "I  never  believed,"  said  a  British 
officer  sadly,  "that  they  would  have  attacked  the  king's 
troops."      Lexington  and  Concord  were  not  riots  like  the 


SIEGE  OF  BOSTON  i8i 

''Boston  Massacre,"  but  the  opening  battles  of  a  great 
revolution. 

Siege  of  Boston.  —  The  minute-men  who  had  driven  the 
British  into  Boston  did  not  return  home,  but  remained  en- 
camped in  a  great  circle  about  the  city.  They  meant  that 
General  Gage  should  send  no  more  expeditions  to  seize  their 
stores.     They  soon  determined 

to     drive    him     out    of    Boston.  On   the  return  of  the  troops  from 

other  _  companies     of     militia    ?Xlt^rrnl¥edT„to3:d: 

came    in    from     towns     too     far     by  the  rebels  firing  from  behmd  walls, 

^       ,  ,  •       ii         ditches,  trees,  and  other  ambufhes;  but 

away    to    have    a    share    m    the     the   brigade,    under    the   command  of 

first     day's     fighting.        John    \^'^  ^^'^y-.  i^^^^^s  1°^"^^  them  at 

•'  o  CD  ^  Lexmgton  with  two  pieces  or  cannon, 

Stark,    a  veteran  of  the  French     the  rebels  were  for  a  while  difperfed; 

i«j    ^u„   is.T^       XT^,^^^l,:^^     but  as  foon  as  the  troops  refumed  their 

wars,  led  the  New  Hampshire    ^^^^^  ^^^^  began  to  fire  upon  them 

militia.  Israel  Putnam  rode  f^m  behind  ftone  walls  and  houfes, 
.  _,  .  Ill     ^^^  l^spt  up  in  that  manner  a  fcatter- 

from  Connecticut,  one  hundred     ing  fire  during  the  whole  of  their  march 

miles,  in  eighteen  hours,  reach-    °f  ^^f',?7''5'  ^^  which  means  feveral 

'             '='  '          ,  were  killed  and  wounded;  and  iuch  was 

ing    the   camp  on    the    morning  the  cruelty  and  barbarity  of  the  rebels, 

r      A       •!  TT       I,    J     ^^{^.  that  they  fcalped  and  cut  off  the  ears 

of     April      21.  He     had     left  of  some  of  the  wounded  men  who  fell 

orders   for  his  men   to   follow    into  their  hands. 

immediatelv.  Part  of  a  British  Account  of 

•^  *  .  Concord  and  Lexington 

Armies   are  not    created    m    „      ^i,   r    ^    ^    „   t 

From  the  London  Gazette,  June  lo,  1775 

a   day.     Military  leaders  now 

beHeve  that  men  must  be  taught  at  least  two  years  before 
they  can  be  called  trained  soldiers.  At  first,  therefore,  the 
minute-men  at  Cambridge  and  other  towns  around  Boston 
formed  an  armed  crowd  rather  than  an  army.  Each 
man  had  brought  his  own  gun,  with  a  small  stock  of 
powder  and  bullets.  Few  were  in  uniform,  most  of  the 
men  being  dressed  as  they  were  when  the  alarm  sounded. 
It  was  astonishing  that  they  had  assembled  so  rapidly. 
It  seemed  as  if  they  had  sprung  out  of  the  ground  at 
the  stamp  of  some  great  leader's  foot.  The  "patriots," 
with  their  committees  of  correspondence,   had  made  plans 


i82  THE  OUTBREAK  OF  WAR 

to  meet  just  such  an  event  as  General  Gage's  ill-fated 
expedition. 

Second  Continental  Congress,  May,  1775.  —  The  Second 
Continental  Congress  met  on  May  10,  1775,  in  Philadelphia, 
at  the  Old  State  House.  Thirteen  colonies  from  New  Hamp- 
shire  to  Georgia  were  represented.     Nova  Scotia,   Quebec, 

and  the  Floridas  held  off. 

C  hamber  of  Supplies,  Watertown,  June   1 8.  1 77c.  rr-n       •        •     i       i    •  <  ,        ^         i 

r.iNTi.EMEN.  Iheir  mhabitants  had  no 

THE  Welfare  of  our  Country  again  induces  us  to  urge  your  ,  ,  ^    >    ^ 

exertions  in  fending  to  the  Magazine  in  this  place,  what  mterCSt  in  thC  CaUSC  whlch 
can  be  procured  of  the  following  Articles,  Salt  Pork,  Beans,-. 

Peas,  Vinegar  and  Blankets,  the  prizes  whereof  as  wellas  -tTTO  c       Krinrrir»n-      fVi^       r\i^Vif^Y' 

the  Carting  fhall  be  allowed  according  to  the  Cuftom  of  your  Place  ^  ^^  Ulili^lll^  LliC  UUiCr 
which  we  defire  you  to  certify — It  is  of  the  utmoft  Importance  that  -i         •  ■  , -i  -rj- 

the  Army  fbould  be  fupplied  agreeable  to  the  Refolve  of  the  Con-  COiOniCS     tOgetUer .  XlOW 

grefs  more  efpecial/y  with  thefe  Articles,  the  four  firft  of  which  are  .  T    •  tit 

necelTary  for  the  SubfiRence  as  well  as  the  Health  of  the  Men,  and  tUC  COUQltlOnS  had  Chang- 
ihe  other  for  their  Comfort— The  occafion  of  the  Deficiency  in 

Blankets  is  moftly  owing  to  a  namber  of  Men  enlifted  from  Bofton  g(^  SmCC  the  firSt  Con2freSS 
»nd  other  Towns  which  have  been  vacated,  and  they  all  muft  be  O 

procured  immediately  or  our  worthy  Countrymen  will  fuffer.—  TYlAf      ir»      ^AT\'^Atyi1-»p»t'       ^^^irrVif 

As  the  Country  affords  every  thing  in  plenty  neceffiiry  to  fubfift  ^^^^  ^     ^^^      "^  ^P  LClli  UCl ,      Cigll  L 
the  Array,  and  >vc  cannot  at  prefent  obtain  many  things  but  by  your  ,-i  -i*        1       'X''U       A     1 

Afllflance,  we  afllire  ourfdyes  that  you  w.ll  act  your  parts  as  worthily  mOntnS  eamCr  1  i  nC  Qeie- 
as  you  have  done  and  hope  that  the  Event  of  all  our  exertions  will 

be  the  Salvation  of  our  Country.  gatCS  WerC  aSSCmblcd  nOW, 
To  the  Seleffmen  jnd  Committee 

cfCcrrefpondenufirthcTjwn  ^  ,       ^  nOt       tO       dCvlsC       WaVS       Of 

of  kI,/u, iPT^-e-TSM^^TS?^    David  Cheever,  per  Order  (?f  •' 

.'AU^  commitcee of  Supplies.  compelHng  Great  Britain 

Call  for  Food  and  Blankets  to  repeal  the ''intolerable" 

June  i8,  1775 

laws,  but  to  manage  a  war 

which  had  actually  begun.  This  was  more  serious  business. 
Congress  decided  to  make  the  cause  of  Massachusetts  that 
of  all  the  colonies.  It  promptly  adopted  the  New  England 
militia  encamped  around  Boston  as  a  ''Continental"  army. 
Steps  were  taken  to  raise  other  troops  and  find  food  and  sup- 
plies  for  all.  A  delegate  from  Virginia,  the  foremost  soldier 
in  America,  George  Washington,  was  unanimously  chosen 
commander-in-chief.  Washington  set  out  for  Cambridge, 
the  headquarters  of  the  army,  on  June  2 1 .  He  had  proceeded 
scarcely  twenty  miles  from  Philadelphia  when  a  rider  hurry- 
ing with  messages  to  Congress  gave  him  the  news  of  another 
battle  with  the  British. 

Bunker  Hill,  June  17.  —  Boston  could  not  be  attacked 
directly  except  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land,  called  Boston  Neck, 


BUNKER  HILL 


183 


which  General  Gage  had  covered  with  batteries.  On  the 
north  and  on  the  south,  however,  were  two  peninsulas, 
crowned  by  hills,  which  reached  out  toward  the  city.  These 
hills  were  called  Bunker  Hill  and  Dorchester  Heights. 
Batteries  placed  on  them  could  soon  destroy  Boston.  To 
forestall  such 
a  danger  Gen- 
eral Gage  de- 
cided to  occupy 
them  on  June 
18.  The  Ameri- 
can leaders 
learned  of  the 
British  plans 
and  determined 
to  act  first. 
On  the  night 
of  June  16  Col- 
onel William 
Prescott  with 
1,200  men  stole 
quietly  along 
the  neck  of  the 

northern  peninsula  and  over  Bunker  Hill  to  Breed's  Hill, 
which  was  somewhat  lower  but  nearer  Boston.  His  men 
could  hear  the  regular  monotonous  cry  of  ''All's  well" 
uttered  by  sentinels  on  the  ships  in  the  Charles  River.. 
Silently  and  rapidly,  with  pick  and  shovel,  they  threw  up 
earthworks.  Within  these  they  constructed  low  platforms 
of  earth  or  boards  to  enable  them  to  fire  across  the  top. 
The  British  could  scarcely  beHeve  their  eyes  when  morning 
dawned. 

The  British  officers  did  not  think  that  raw  militia  would 
resist  a  direct  attack.     They  might  have  seized  the  neck  of 


J  ?\4 

0/*     American 
>_         F0RTiFiCArpoN3 

If  ^'   .-M^ 

1               ^^ 

^                     '        ^ ^-  Bos  J^^-S=::;= 

.^d 

1  yv=^^ 

J^iW"  W^'  &vj- — )^V 

^5=^;^=-^'^    J^             S.'y              L                    '^^^^ 

^-■-■<^==^' 

ff    "      '^y  F              /L^-y-j            c.'' 

^"     V^ 

/     ^    rTfew/^/       0 

g-V^^ 

1                 ^^Jr^-^^            ^         Fl 

^''.           1 

Boston,  Bunker  Hill,  and  Charlestown 


i84 


THE  OUTBREAK  OF  WAR 


the  peninsula  and  occupied  Bunker  Hill,  which  would  have 
turned  the  tables  on  the  colonial  troops.  But  they  decided 
to  attack  in  front.  Prescott,  when  he  saw  their  red  lines 
advancing  up  the  hill,  knowing  that  his  men  had  few  bayonets 

and  only  a  small  stock  of 
powder,  told  his  men  to  wait 
until  they  saw  ''the  whites  of 
their  eyes,"  to  ''aim  at  the 
handsome  coats,"  and  to 
"pick  off  the  commanders." 
At  the  first  fire  whole  Hues 
of  British  went  down,  and 
their  comrades  fell  back  in 
disorder.  Again  they  ad- 
vanced in  the  face  of  a  mur- 
derous fire,  and  again  they 
fell  back,  leaving  the  ground 
covered  with  dead  and 
wounded.  General  Howe, 
who  was  in  command,  order- 
ed a  third  attack.  Suddenly 
the  firing  from  the  redoubt 
slackened  and  ceased.  The  powder  of  the  colonial  soldiers 
was  used  up.  They  had  nothing  left  save  the  butts  of  their 
muskets  and  stones.  The  consequence  was  that  the  British 
soon  drove  them  back  across  Bunker  Hill  and  out  of  the 
peninsula.  The  British  paid  dearly  for  their  victory,  losing 
over  a  thousand  men  in  killed  and  wounded.  No  wonder 
one  of  the  colonial  officers  remarked  that  they  would  like 
to  sell  another  hill  at  the  same  price! 

Making  an  Army.  —  Washington  arrived  at  Cambridge 
on  July  2,  about  two  weeks  after  the  battle,  and  took  com- 
mand of  the  army  the  following  day.  His  first  task  was  to 
begin  the  soldierly  training  of  the  bands  of  farmers  and 


Bunker  Hill  Monument 


MAKING  AN  ARMY 


i8S 


mechanics  which  made  up  the  revolutionary  force.  He  must 
also  procure  powder,  bullets,  and  cannon.  Many  cannon 
and  a  large  amount  of  powder  had  already  been  seized  by 
Ethan  Allen  and  a  band  of  ''Green  Mountain  Boys"  at  Fort 
Ticonderoga  on  Lake  Champlain. 
The  cannon  could  not  be 
brought  to  Cambridge  until  the 
snows  of  the  next  winter  made 
it  easy  to  haul  them.  Other 
needed  suppKes  were  obtained 
by  the  capture  of  a  British  store- 
ship  as  it  was  nearing  Boston. 
Washington  showed  great  pa- 
tience and  tact,  as  well  as  firm- 
ness, in  the  tedious  work  of 
preparing  the  army  for  war. 

Among  the  soldiers  were  many 
Irish,  Scotch-Irish,  and  German 
immigrants.^  Whole  companies, 
especially  in  Pennsylvania,  con- 
tained few  or  no  English  col- 
onists. Some  of  the  soldiers 
had  seen  service  in  European 
armies,  others  in  the  recent  war 
with  the  French  and  Indians.  Many  of  the  farmers,  accus- 
tomed to  life  on  the  frontier  or  to  hunting,  readily  learned 
the  lessons  of  warfare. 

While  Washington  was  busy  with  his  task  at  Cambridge, 


George  Washington  in  1775 
After  the  portrait  by  Peale 


^  By  the  Revolution  the  thirteen  colonies  ceased  to  be  dependencies  of  Eng- 
land. They  became  instead  parts  of  a  new  nation  formed  in  North  America. 
From  this  time  the  people  leaving  Europe  for  America  are  thought  of,  not 
so  much  as  emigrants  from  Europe  and  subjects  of  a  European  kingdom,  as 
immigrants  into  the  United  States  and  members  of  the  Republic.  For  this 
reason  the  words  "  immigrant  "  and  "  immigration  "  will  now  be  used  where 
"  emigrant  "  and  "  emigration  "  have  been  used. 


i86 


THE  OUTBREAK  OF  WAR 


an  attempt  was  made  to  invade  Canada  and  seize  Quebec. 
The  colonial  troops  reached  Quebec  but  failed  to  cap- 
ture it.  Their  attempt  had  one  important  consequence: 
it  alarmed  the  British  government  so  much  that  the 
army  brought  together  to  subdue  the  rebeUious  colonists 
was  divided  and  a  part  sent  to  Canada.  This  lessened 
the  number  of  troops  which  Washington  had  to  deal 
with  directly. 

General  Howe,  who  had  taken  the  place  of  General  Gage, 
made  no  attempt  to  attack  Washington's  camps  about  Bos- 
ton. Washington  did  not  com- 
plete his  preparations  until  win- 
ter had  come  and  almost  gone. 
On  the  night  of  March  4, 
1776,  he  made  a  move  similar 
to  the  seizure  of  Bunker  Hill. 
His  soldiers  occupied  Dorches- 
ter Heights  and  built  two 
redoubts.  General  Howe  re- 
marked, when  morning  came 
and  he  saw  the  forts  through  his  glass,  "The  rebels  have  done 
more  in  one  night  than  my  whole  army  would  have  done  in 
a  month."  The  British  admiral  said,  ''If  they  retain  pos- 
session of  the  heights  I  cannot  keep  a  ship  in  the  harbor." 
Howe  decided  at  once  that  he  must  either  storm  forts  far 
stronger  than  Prescott's  defences  on  Bunker  Hill  or  with- 
draw from  Boston.  He  chose  the  latter  course,  and  on  March 
17  the  British  fleet,  with  his  army  aboard,  left  the  city,  bound 
for  HaHfax. 

Boston  after  the  Siege.  —  Nearly  a  thousand  inhabitants 
of  Boston  left  with  the  British.  Among  them  were  the  former 
officials  of  the  king  in  the  colony  and  many  of  the  older 
families,  who  formed  the  aristocracy  of  the  town.  They 
went  into  voluntary  exile  because  they  sympathized  with  the 


'>;>?>f^^^ 


One  of  the   Guns   Drawn  from 

TiCONDEROGA   TO   BoSTON   FOR 

THE  Siege 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES  187 

British  cause  and  feared  to  remain  in  Boston  without  the 
protection  of  the  soldiers. 

Boston's  direct  experience  with  war  was  over.  The  in- 
habitants had  suffered  hardships  from  famine  and  disease. 
Charlestown,  a  neighboring  town, 
burned  during  the  battle  of  Bun- 
ker Hill,  was  still  a  scene  of  utter 
desolation.  The  people  bravely 
went  to  work  to  make  Boston 
secure  against  another  British  in- 
vasion.    Every    able-bodied    man 

,  11^1     Flag   of    the    United    Colo- 

gave  two  days  each  week  toward  ^ies  in  17 75-1 777 

rebuilding  the  fort  in  the  harbor 

and  strengthening  the  other  defenses.  In  a  few  days  Wash- 
ington, with  the  main  body  of  his  army,  departed  for  New 
York,  which  he  thought  the  British  would  soon  attempt 
to  seize.  The  capture  of  Boston  was  Washington's  first 
victory. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  ways  did  the  colonists  prepare  for  war  with  the  mother 
country? 

2.  Why  did  the  British  commander  at  Boston  send  an  expedition  to  Con- 
cord? What  happened  during  the  journey?  Why  was  it  harder  after  this  to 
make  a  peaceful  settlement? 

3.  How  was  it  possible  for  the  patriots  so  quickly  to  gather  a  body  of 
men  for  the  siege  of  Boston?  Why  is  this  body  of  men  called  "an  armed 
crowd"  rather  than  an  army? 

4.  What  colonies  sent  representatives  to  the  Second  Continental  Congress? 
Why  did  some  English  colonies  fail  to  send  representatives?  What  was  the 
difference  between  the  work  of  the  First  Continental  Congress  and  the  Second? 

5.  Why  did  the  colonists  occupy  a  position  near  Bunker  Hill?  Which  side 
was  victorious  in  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill? 

6.  How  did  Washington  secure  additional  materials  of  war?  What  impor- 
tant result  came  from  the  attempt  to  seize  Quebec? 

7.  How  did  Washington  finally  drive  the  British  army  out  of  Boston?  What 
inhabitants  of  Boston  sided  with  the  mother  country  and  went  into 
exile? 


THE  OUTBREAK  OF  WAR 


EXERCISES 

1.  Locate  on  an  outline  map  of  Boston  and  the  vicinity  all  places  men- 
tioned in  this  chapter,  and  tell  what  happened  at  each. 

2.  Examine  the  two  old  accounts  of  the  Battle  of  Lexington  on  pages  i8o 
and  i8i  and  tell  in  what  ways  they  dijffer. 

Important  Dates : 

April  19,  1775.     Battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord.     Beginning  of  the 

Revolution. 
May  10,  1775.   The  Second  Continental  Congress  meets  at  Philadelphia 

and  takes  over  the  conduct  of  the  war. 
June  17,  1775.   The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 
March  17,  1776.   General  Gage,  with  his  entire  army  and  1,000  loyalists, 

abandons  Boston. 


First    Flag   of   the 

United  States 
Adopted  by  Congress  in 

1777 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE   BIRTH    OF   A    NEW   NATION 

Great  Britain  and  the  Colonial  Rebellion.  —  Washington's 
success  in  driving  the  British  army  from  Boston  did  not 
convince  either  parHament  or  King  George  that  the  time  had 
come  for  conciHatory  measures.  It  made  them  only  more 
anxious  to  put  forth  every  effort  to  subdue  the  rebelHous 
colonists.  They  had  already  refused  to  reply  to  a  petition  of 
the  Continental  Congress  for  a  friendly  settlement  of  the 
difficulties.  They  had  also  made  the  blunder  of  hiring  Ger- 
man soldiers  to  swell  the  numbers  of  their  army,  forgetting 
the  fact  that  a  Httle  over  a  hundred  years  before  the  attempt 
to  use  foreign  soldiers  to  subdue  Enghshmen  had  cost 
Charles  I  and  his  principal  minister  their  heads.  ParHa- 
ment also  passed  an  act  cutting  off  the  colonies  from  all 
trade  while  the  "rebellion"  lasted. 

Thinking  about  Separation.  —  The  colonists  had  begun  to 
think  that  there  was  little  hope  of  fair  treatment  from  parHa- 
ment and  king.  At  first  only  a  few  leaders  like  Samuel 
Adams,  John  Adams,  and  Patrick  Henry  thought  it  useless 
to  expect  parHament  to  change  its  manner  of  deaHng.  Most 
of  the  colonists  would  have  been  glad  to  return  to  friendly 
relations  with  the  mother  country.  Washington,  when  on 
his  way  to  Cambridge  in  1775,  had  promised  the  members  of 
the  New  York  provincial  congress  that  he  would  work  toward 
that  end.  As  the  winter  passed  with  no  better  news  from 
England,  feeling  changed.  The  colonists  asked  one  another 
why,  if  they  could  not  govern  themselves  in  the  British 
empire,  they  should  not  try  to  govern  themselves  out  of  it? 
If  they  must  fight,  why  not  fight  for  independence? 


I90  THE   BIRTH  OF  A  NEW  NATION 

Paine' s  Common  Sense.  —  Thomas  Paine,  an  Englishman 
who  had  recently  settled  in  Philadelphia,  published  a  remark- 
able pamphlet  early  in  1776.  He  called  it  Common  Sense. 
Many  of  the  colonists  held  kings  in  great  reverence,  beheving 
that  George  III  was  their  God-given  ruler.  Paine  ridiculed 
such  ideas.  He  bluntly  called  kings  ''sceptred  savages" 
and  ''royal  brutes."  "Of  more  worth,"  he  declared,  "is 
one  honest  man  to  society  .  .  .  than  all  the  crowned  ruffians 

itj-t.  /yyucAAXt.<x£j2^  pfCe.  cL^    Kjo  C€l  c/n.    i^hju^    cr\jif.<v 


Facsimile  of  the  Conclusion  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
In  the  writing  of  leflferson,  with  the  first  three  signatures. 

that  ever  lived."  Monarchy  instead  of  being  the  best  form 
of  government  was,  he  said,  the  worst.  And  how  absurd,  he 
wrote,  "to  be  always  running  three  or  four  thousand  miles 
with  ...  a  petition,  waiting  four  or  five  months  for  an 
answer,"  "or  to  suppose  that  a  continent  should  be  governed 
by  an  island."  "The  blood  of  the  slain,"  he  added,  ''cries, 
"Tis  time  to  part.'"  Much  that  Paine  wrote  was  so  simple, 
so  convincing,  such  "common  sense,"  that  thousands  read  it 
and  concluded  that  separation  was  necessary. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence.  —  The  colonies  one  by 
one  advised  their  delegates  in  Congress  to  work  for  independ- 


THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE        191 

ence.  Finally,  on  July  2,  1776,  Congress  voted  ''that  these 
United  Colonies  are,  and  of  a  right  ought  to  be,  free  and 
independent  states;  .  .  .  that  all  political  connection  be- 
tween them  and  the  State  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to 
be,  totally  dissolved."  Two  days  later,  July  4,  Congress 
adopted  a  formal  Declaration  of  Independence,  which 
Thomas  Jefferson  had  written,  announcing  to  the  world  the 
new  purpose  of  the  colonies.     It  stated  the  right  to  ''life, 


Room  in  which  the  Declaration  was  Signed 

liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness,"  which  the  colonists 
had  claimed  for  themselves  all  along,  and  added  a  start- 
ling Hst  of  charges  against  the  king.  These  were  given  as 
the  reason  for  seeking  independence.  Perhaps  some  of  the 
charges  were  not  fair,  for  Jefferson  was  making  a  plea,  and 
not  writing  a  history.     Most  of  them,  however,  were  true. 

The  Royalists  or  Tories.  —  About  one-third  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  thirteen  colonies  opposed  separation  from  Great 
Britain.  In  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  the  loyalists  and 
patriots  were  about  equally  divided.  The  Quakers  were 
opposed   to  war  for  any  purpose.     Many  loyalists  declared 


192 


THE  BIRTH  OF  A  NEW  NATION 


that  if  the  colonies  should  win  their  independence  from  Great 
Britain,  they  would  only  fall  victims  to  discord  and  desola- 
tion. The  loyalists  thought  the  patriot  leaders  self-seeking 
lawyers  and  shop-keepers,  or  debtors  who  wished  to  escape 
paying  their  British  creditors. 


Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia 
Where  the  Continental  Congress  met 

Making  New  Governments.  —  The  decision  to  separate 
from  Great  Britain  compelled  the  colonists  to  remodel  their 
provincial  governments.  Each  colony  now  became  a  ''state.'' 
The  royal  governors  and  other  officers  had  already  fled  to 
England  or  taken  refuge  with  the  nearest  British  garrisons  or 
fleets.  William  Franklin,  the  royalist  governor  of  New  Jersey, 
though  the  son  of  Benjamin  Frankhn,  had  been  seized  by 
the  revolutionists  and  sent  to  a  Connecticut  prison.  Not 
only  must  the  vacant  offices  be  filled,  but  the  governments 
must  be  changed  in  part.  John  Adams  said  that  the  manu- 
facture of  governments  was  as  much  talked  of  as  saltpeter 
had  been  at  the  outbreak  of  war  when  powder  was  needed. 

The  only  governments  which  required  little  change  were 
those  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island.     There  the  people 


COLONIAL  CONSTITUTIONS 


193 


had  been  permitted  by  the  colonial  charters  to  choose  their 
officers,  including  their  governors.  The  local  government 
in  town  and  country  was  left  undisturbed. 

Colonial  Constitutions.  —  In  the  other  colonies  the  new 
form  or  frame  of  government  was  set  forth  in  a  document  called 
a  constitution.  This  was  decided 
upon  in  a  congress  or  convention 
of  delegates  representing  the 
colony.  In  some  cases  it  was  re- 
ferred to  the  voters  themselves. 
The  first  plan  of  a  constitution  in 
Massachusetts  was  rejected  by 
the  voters  five  to  one.  Each 
constitution  explained  not  only 
what  the  officers  could  do,  but 
what  they  could  not  do.  The 
colonists  had  learned,  either  from 
bitter  experience  with  their  Eng- 
lish officers,  or  from  their  reading 
of  European  history,  to  distrust  officials.  Bills  or  fists  of 
rights  which  the  people  claimed  and  which  their  officers 
must  respect  were  inserted  in  each  constitution.  Many  of 
these  rights  EngHshmen  had  claimed  as  far  back  as  the  time 
of  the  Magna  Charta.  Others,  far-sighted  EngHshmen  and 
Europeans  had  only  begun  to  claim  in  the  seventeenth  or 
eighteenth  century.  The  principal  ones  were  ''Trial  by 
Jury,"  ''No  Taxation  without  Representation,"  "Freedom 
of  the  Press,"  "Freedom  of  Elections,"  and  the  "Right  of 
Assembly  and  Petition." 

Governors  and  Legislators.  —  Governors  chosen  by  the 
people,  or  by  their  legislatures,  took  the  place  of  royal  gov- 
ernors. The  colonists,  fearing  "one-man"  power,  were  care- 
ful not  to  give  their  governors  much  authority.  Most  of  the 
powers  which  the  royal  governors  had  exercised  were  now 


John  Adams 


194  THE  BIRTH  OF  A  NEW  NATION 

given  to  the  legislatures.  The  legislators  were  elected  for 
only  one  or  two  years,  to  keep  any  of  them  from  becoming 
overbearing  or  tyrannical  through  long  enjoyment  of  ofhce. 
Besides,  the  constitution-makers  scattered  the  various  powers 
among  the  law-makers,  the  governors,  and  the  judges  in  such 
a  way  that  one  set  of  ofhcials  might  act  as  a  check  upon 
another. 

Great  care  was  taken  to  break  away  from  many  old-world 
customs.  No  kings,  no  nobles,  no  class  with  special  privileges 
because  of  birth,  such  as  existed  almost  everywhere  in  Europe, 
were  permitted  by  any  of  the  American  constitutions.  When 
some  one  in  Virginia  urged  that  the  eldest  son  ought,  at 
least,  to  have  a  double  share  of  his  father's  estate,  Jefferson 
replied,  ^'Not  until  he  can  eat  a  double  allowance  of  food 
and  do  a  double  allowance  of  work."  ^ 

The  work  of  making  these  constitutions  interested  not  only 
the  colonists  but  many  Europeans,  especially  thoughtful 
Frenchmen.  Twice  during  the  w^ar,  first  in  1778  and  again 
in  1 78 1,  collections  of  the  constitutions  were  translated  into 
French  and  published  in  Paris.  The  second  collection  was 
translated  by  a  nobleman  at  the  request  of  Benjamin 
Franklin. 

The  First  Union  of  the  States.  —  To  Congress  belonged  the 
harder  task  of  making  a  frame  of  government  which  should 
bind  the  states  together.  Unlike  the  state  conventions  it 
could  not  simply  remodel  a  government  with  which  all 
were  famiHar.  Although  it  began  its  work  in  June,  1776, 
it  was  not  until  the  close  of  the  following  year  that  Con- 
gress agreed  upon  a  constitution,  called  the  ''Articles  of 
Confederation."  One  difficulty  was  the  jealousy  which  the 
delegates  from  some  of  the  states  felt  of  the  influence  which 
other  states  appeared  to   have.     This  partly  accounted  for 

1  Before  the  Revolution  the  eldest  son  in  Virginia,  as  in  Great  Britain, 
inherited  the  larger  share  of  the  father's  estate. 


FIRST  UNION  OF  THE  STATES 


195 


the  long  delay  of  the  states  in  accepting  the  ''Articles," 
which  went  into  force  in  1781.  They  did  not  give  the 
government  much  power.  The  '^United  States"  was  still 
little  more  than  a  name.  The- powers  which  the  states  con- 
sented to  give  the  government  of  the  Confederation  were 
exercised  by  a  Congress  similar  to  the  Continental  Congress. 
The  delegates  had  such  a  horror 
of  kings  that  they  did  not  even 
provide  for  a  president. 

The  formation  of  these  new 
governments  marks  an  epoch  in 
th-e  history  of  the  world.  The 
rights  of  the  people  were  more 
carefully  guarded  than  by  any 
other  governments  that  had  ever 
existed.  The  work  which  John 
Adams,  John  Dickinson,  Thomas 
Jefferson,  James  Madison,  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  and  other  leaders 
did  in  the  Continental  Congress 
and  in  the  state  conventions  was  as  important  as  the  work 
of  Washington's  army  in  the  field.  Among  the  ablest  was 
John  Adams.  No  man  had  more  good  ideas  on  constitu- 
tion making.  No  one  worked  harder  for  the  common  good. 
He  was  busy  from  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  ten  at 
night,  and  earned  the  title  of  the  ''Statesman  of  the 
Revolution." 

Chances  of  Success.  —  The  colonists  had  two  very  differ- 
ent tasks.  It  was  one  thing  to  make  over  their  colonial  gov- 
ernments and  suit  them  to  new  conditions.  It  was  another 
to  win  their  independence  on  the  battle  field.  More  than 
once  as  the  Revolutionary  War  went  on  the  chances  of  final 
success  seemed  against  the  colonists.  The  mother  country 
had  nearly  all  the  advantages.     She  possessed  a  strong  war 


John  Dickinson 


196  THE  BIRTH  OF  A  NEW  NATION 

fleet.  Her  army,  though  small,  was  well  trained.  Her  gov- 
ernment owed  a  great  deal  of  money,  but  had  no  difficulty  in 
borrowing  more,  because  it  always  paid  its  debts. 

The  course  of  the  war  was  influenced  by  the  geographical 
situation,  which  gave  the  colonists  one  great  advantage. 
This  was  their  distance  from  England.  In  those  days  the 
voyage  across  the  ocean  took  about  six  weeks,  sometimes 
more  than  twice  as  long.  Often  an  entire  season  passed  be- 
fore England  could  send  needed  supplies  or  reinforcements 
to  her  armies.  Furthermore,  the  colonies  were  stretched  out 
in  a  straggling  line  over  1,300  miles  between  the  sea  and  the 
mountains.  The  mountain  barrier  offered  them  a  safe  re- 
treat in  cas^  their  armies  were  hard  pressed.  This  was 
another  advantage. 

For  the  British,  the  sea  was  naturally  the  base  of  opera- 
tions, that  is,  the  place  from  which  all  expeditions  started. 
On  the  sea  they  could  assemble  at  any  time  a  fleet  of  war 
ships  and  transports  strong  enough  to  carry  the  army  any- 
where up  and  down  the  long  coast.  If  their  army  marching 
inland  was  defeated  or  seriously  threatened,  it  could  hastily 
return  to  the  coast,  reorganize,  and  start  again.  By  such 
waterways  as  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Hudson  River  their 
ships  could  go  far  into  the  interior.  The  Hudson  and  Cham- 
plain  valleys  together  almost  made  a  highway  from  New 
York  to  Canada,  where  the  colonists  had  not  risen  in  revolt. 
These  valleys  also  separated  one  group  of  colonies  from 
another. 

Capture  of  New  York.  —  New  York,  lying  at  the  gateway 
of  the  Hudson  and  possessing  an  excellent  harbor,  was 
marked  by  nature  as  the  place  which  a  sea-power  like  Great 
Britain  would  attempt  to  seize.  If  captured,  it  would  become 
the  center  from  which  to  carry  on  the  work  of  subduing  the 
rebellious  colonists.  Before  General  Howe's  reinforcements 
reached  him  at  Halifax  and  he  was  ready  to  sail  to  New  York, 


REFERENCE  MAP  FOR  THE  REVOLUTION 
NORTHERN  AND  MIDDLE  STATER 


WASHINGTON  AT  TRENTON  197 

an  attempt  was  made  by  the  British  to  gain  a  foothold  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  near  the  southern  end  of  the 
colonial  line.  The  attack  was  beaten  off.  In  August,  1776, 
Howe  appeared  before  New  York.  His  army  was  larger, 
better  equipped,  and  better  discipKned  than  Washington's 
army.  In  a  series  of  battles  beginning  on  Brooklyn  Heights 
and  ending  at  Fort  Washington,  at  the  northern  end  of 
Manhattan  Island,  the  colonial  army  was  defeated  and 
forced  to  retreat  into  New  Jersey. 

Washington  finally  took  refuge  behind  the  Delaware  River. 
As  winter  came  on  his  army,  half-starved  and  scantily  clothed, 
dwindled  away.  Only  about  6,000  disheartened  soldiers  re- 
mained. Alarmed  at  the  approach  of  the  British,  Con- 
gress withdrew  from  Philadelphia  to  Baltimore.  Many  of 
the  Philadelphians  hid  their  money  and  silver  and  sent 
their  famihes  into  the  country.  Their  fears  were  needless, 
for  General  Howe,  on  December  13,  ordered  his  army  into 
winter  quarters  in  different  New  Jersey  towns.  He  went 
back  to  New  York  to  spend  the  hoHdays  among  loyalist 
friends.  Some  of  the  British  thought  that  the  war  was  over 
and  began  to  talk  of  returning  to  England. 

Washington's  Victory  at  Trenton. — A  part  of  Howe's 
army  was  stationed  at  Trenton.  It  was  made  up  of  Germans, 
hired  of  their  prince,  the  ruler  of  Hesse-Cassel,  for  $36  apiece. 
Washington  formed  a  plan  to  capture  them.  He  crossed  the 
Delaware  eight  or  nine  miles  above  Trenton  on  Christmas 
night.  The  passage  was  difficult  and  dangerous  because  of 
the  ice,  and  a  part  of  his  troops  did  not  succeed  in  crossing 
at  all.  After  they  reached  the  eastern  bank  the  soldiers 
marched  on  in  the  blinding  storm.  "The  snow,"  writes 
one,  ''was  tinged  here  and  there  with  blood  from  the  feet  of 
the  men  who  wore  broken  shoes."  In  the  early  morning 
Trenton  was  surrounded,  and  about  one  thousand  Hessians 
were  taken  prisoners.    Not  an  American  was  killed.    It  was 


198 


THE  BIRTH  OF  A  NEW  NATION 


a  victory  which  put  new  courage  into  the  army  and  raised 
the  hopes  of  the  colonists  again. 

Princeton.  —  Washington  gave  the  British  another  surprise 
a  week  later.  Alarmed  by  the  capture  of  the  Hessians,  Howe 
ordered  General  CornwalHs  to  unite  the  different  bodies  of 
troops.  Meanwhile  Washington,  who  had  first  returned  to 
Philadelphia  with 
his  prisoners,  had 
crossed  the  Dela- 
ware again.      On 


Map  of  New  York 

New  Jersey,  and 

Pennsylvania 


January  2  CornwalHs  thought  that  he  had  caught  Washing- 
ton with  his  back  to  the  river,  which  it  was  impossible 
to.  recross  in  the  presence  of  a  hostile  army.  Cornwallis 
exclaimed,  ''At  last  we  have  run  down  the  old  fox,  and 
we  will  bag  him  in  the  morning."  Instead,  Washington, 
leaving  his  campfires  burning  to  deceive  the  British,  marched 
around  their  lines  toward  Princeton.  At  Princeton  he  put 
to  flight  three  regiments  of  British  on  their  way  to  join  Corn- 
walHs, and  took  many  prisoners. 
At  daybreak  CornwalHs  faced  an  empty  camp,  while  the 


THE   CAMPAIGN  OF   1777  199 

booming  of  cannon  in  the  direction  of  Princeton  revealed  to 
him  the  game  that  the  ''old  fox"  had  played.  Washington 
marched  to  the  hills  about  Morristown,  and  the  British  con- 
cluded that  it  was  wise  to  withdraw  toward  the  Hudson.  Few 
events  have  had  a  greater  influence  than  the  small  battles 
at  Trenton  and  Princeton.  No  one,  in  America  or  Europe, 
any  longer  doubted  the  skill  and  courage  of  the  commander 
who  could  accompHsh  such  wonders  with  a  broken  army. 

The  Campaign  of  1777. —  General  Howe  had  large  plans 
for  1777.  If  the  government  gave  him  the  reinforcements 
for  which  he  asked,  he  would  have  35,000  soldiers.  These 
would  be  enough  for  two  important  expeditions.  One  would 
march  toward  Boston  from  Newport,  in  Rhode  Island,  which 
had  been  seized  the  fall  before.  The  other  would  march 
upon  Philadelphia,  and,  perhaps,  after  taking  that,  enter 
Virginia.  But  the  government  could  not  furnish  the  troops. 
The  best  it  could  do  was  to  give  him  8,000  of  the  soldiers 
who  had  been  sent  to  Canada  after  the  colonists  had  attacked 
Quebec.  The  safest  way  would  have  been  to  transport  them 
by  sea,  but  the  government  feared  that  the  colonists  would 
take  advantage  of  their  absence  to  make  another  attack 
on  Canada.  It  was  decided,  therefore,  that  they  should 
attempt  to  reach  New  York  by  the  Champlain,  Hudson,  and 
Mohawk  valleys. 

Burgoyne^s  Expedition.  —  The  expedition  from  Canada 
was  led  by  Sir  John  Burgoyne.  He  expected  General  Howe 
to  send  a  force  up  the  Hudson  to  meet  him,  but  letters  went 
so  slowly  in  those  days  that  before  General  Howe  learned  of 
the  government's  final  plans  he  had  left  New  York  by  sea, 
and  was  nearing  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  from  which  he 
intended  to  march  on  Philadelphia.  He  could  not  now  turn 
back,  and  so  Burgoyne  was  left  to  carry  out  the  other  plan 
alone. 

Burgoyne  set  out  in  June,  1777.    He  advanced  by  Lake 


200  THE  BIRTH  OF  A  NEW  NATION 

Champlain,  and  easily  took  Ticonderoga,  the  frontier  fortress 
of  northern  New  York.  All  went  well  until  August,  when 
the  army  began  to  cross  the  portage  from  Lake  George  to 
the  Hudson  River.  General  Schuyler,  who  commanded  the 
colonial  forces  in  New  York,  put  the  axes  and  spades  of  his 
men  to  good  use.  He  blocked  the  roads  in  every  direction 
with  fallen  trees;  he  choked  the  rivers  with  earth  and  trees 
until  they  were  impassable  for  boats  with  supplies;  and  he 
drove  off  the  sheep  and  cattle.  All  food  was  destroyed  or 
carted  away. 

A  British  army,  made  up  partly  of  Canadians,  loyalists, 
and  Indians,  tried  to  join  Burgoyne  by  way  of  the  Mohawk 
Valley,  but  the  German  settlers  drove  it  back  with  the  help 
of  a  force  under  Benedict  Arnold  that  had  been  sent  by  the 
colonial  army.  Another  force  of  i,ooo  men  Burgoyne,  in 
desperate  need  of  suppKes,  sent  to  Bennington,  Vermont. 
This  army  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  John  Stark's 
New  Hampshire  minute-men  and  their  neighbors,  the  "  Green 
Mountain  Boys." 

On  October  17,  1777,  near  Saratoga,  Burgoyne  surrendered, 
though  not  until  he  had  made  several  desperate  efforts  to 
fight  his  way  out  of  the  trap.  His  army,  of  which  6,000  men 
remained,  half  of  them  Germans,  became  prisoners.  All 
sorts  of  supplies  also  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  colonial  troops. 
The  capture  of  an  entire  British  army  filled  the  colonists 
with  enthusiastic  hopes.  It  encouraged  the  enemies  of 
Great  Britain  in  Europe.  The  credit  of  the  victory  belonged 
to  General  Schuyler,  but  it  was  given  to  General  Gates, 
whom  Congress  had  placed  in  command  before  the  campaign 
ended. 

Capture  of  Philadelphia.  —  Meanwhile  General  Howe  had 
succeeded  in  his  campaign  against  Philadelphia.  He  had 
begun  his  march  from  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay  about  the 
first  of  September.     Washington  attempted  to  check  him  at 


CAPTURE   OF   PHILADELPHIA 


20I 


Brand>^me  Creek,  but  was  badly  defeated.  Nevertheless, 
he  afterward  managed  his  army  so  well  that  it  took  Howe 
two  weeks  to  march  the  last  twenty-six  miles.  Philadelphia 
was  occupied  September  26.  It  was  now  too  late  to  go  to 
Burgoyne's  rehef.  In  1777  the  British 
took  a  city  and  lost  an  army. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  did  the  colonists  think  in  1775  about 
separation  from  England?  What  things  changed 
their  minds  by  1776? 

2.  Who  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence? 
What  did  it  say?  Who  opposed  independence? 
Why  did  they  oppose  independence?  Were  there 
many  of  them? 

3.  Why  did  the  colonists  have  to  make  over 
their  governments?  Why  did  the  people  of  Connect- 
icut and  Rhode  Island  need  to  make  fewer  changes 
in  government? 

4.  What  did  the  colonists  put  in  their  consti- 
tutions?    Why  did  they  take  many  powers  away  from  their  governors  and 
give    them  to  the    legislatures?      Why   did  they  fix  short    terms   for    their 
legislators?        How  else  did  they  guard  against  overbearing  or   tyrannical 
officers?     What  old-world  customs  did  they  keep  out? 

5.  Why  was  the  task  of  Congress  in  making  a  frame  of  government  harder 
than  that  of  the  states?  Why  did  the  delegates  in  Congress  give  the  new 
government  of  the  ''United  States"  so  httle  power?  Why  did  they  not  pro- 
vide for  a  president? 

6.  What  advantages  did  the  British  have  in  the  Revolution?  What  two 
advantages  were  on  the  side  of  the  colonists? 

7.  What  region  did  the  British  seize  before  the  end  of  1776  which  made 
up  for  the  loss  of  Boston  in  March?  Why  were  the  small  battles  of  Trenton 
and  Princeton  of  great  importance  to  the  colonists? 

8.  What  was  General  Howe's  plan  for  1777?  Why  was  General  Burgoyne 
sent  from  Canada  to  New  York?  Why  was  he  sent  by  the  Champlain-Hudson 
route? 

9.  Why  did  not  General  Howe  help  Burgoyne  more?  How  was  Burgoyne 
captured? 

10.   What  had  the  British  gained  during  the  third  year  of  the  war?     What 
had  they  lost? 


A  Continental  Sol- 
dier IN  1777 


202  THE  BIRTH  OF  A  NEW  NATION 


EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  arguments  that  patriot  leaders  like  John  Adams  and 
Thomas  Paine  gave  for  complete  separation  from  Great  Britain,  and  another 
list  of  the  arguments  that  the  loyalists  used  against  the  step. 

2.  Find  out  from  one  who  knows  whether  the  frame  of  government  of  the 
states  today  resembles  that  made  during  the  Revolution,  and  in  what  way  it 
differs. 

3.  Make  out  a  list  of  the  gains  of  each  side  during  the  years  1775,  1776, 
and  1777. 

Important  Dates: 

I'j'jd.   July  4.     The  Declaration  of  Independence. 
.1776.   December  26.     The  Battle  of  Trenton. 
1777.    September  26.     Howe  enters  Philadelphia. 
1777.   October  17.     The  surrender  of  General  Burgoyne. 


The  Liberty  Bell 
In  Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


LIFE   IN   WAR   TIME 


EXCELLENCT 


What  the  War  Did  Not  Do.  —  The  Revolutionary  War 
lasted  seven  years  and  yet  few  regions  in  the  colonies  saw  an 
army  of  either  friend  or  foe.  The  march  to  Concord  or  to 
Bennington  was  the  longest  expedition  the  British  made  in 
New  England.  They  ravaged  one  or  two  Connecticut  towns, 
burned  Falmouth,  Maine,  and  occupied  Newport,  and  that 
was  all  the  New  Englanders 
saw  of  them  after  Boston  was 
abandoned. 

Until  1780  life  on  the  Vir- 
ginia plantations  went  on  as 
usual,  except  that  it  was  hard- 
er to  market  tobacco.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  colonies 
farther  south.  New  Jersey 
and  the  Hudson  River  Valley 
suffered  most.  Even  there 
the  mischief  was  commonly 
done  by  bands  of  patri- 
ots or  of  loyalists  determined 
to  bring  destruction  upon  one 
another.  The  presence  of  the 
British  army  did  not  always 
mean  ruin  to  a  neighborhood,  for  the  officers  frequently  paid 
the  farmers  in  gold  and  silver  for  the  meat,  flour,  and  vege- 
tables which  they  brought  into  camp.  While  General  Howe's 
army  was  quartered  in  Philadelphia  the  farmers  of  eastern 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON.  EsouiRE. 

GENERAL  «nd  COMMANDER  u,  CHIEF  of  the  Fo»cM 
of  the  Ukit£d  Statm  of  Aksxica. 

O  Y  Virtue  of  the  Power  and  Dire&ion  to  Me  efpe- 
-U  cially  given,  I  hereby  enjoin  and  require  all  Perfons 
reCding  within  feventy  Mil^  of  my  Head  Quarters  to 
threfli  one  Half  of  their  Grain  by  the  ift  Day  cf  February, 
9nd  the  other  Half  by  the  ift  Day  of  March  next  enfmng, 
on  Pain,  in  Cafe  of  Failure,  of  having  all  that  fliall  re- 
main in  Sheaves  after  the  Period  above  mentioned,  feized 
by  the  Commiflaries  and  Quarter-Maflers  of  the  Army, 
and  paid  for  as  Straw. 

GIVEN  under  my  Hand,  at  Head  garters,  near 
the  Valley  Forge,  in  Philadelphia  County,  this  loti 
Day  of  December,  1777. 

G.    H^^SHINGTON. 
By  His  Excellency's  Command, 
Robert  H.  Harrison,  Sec'y- 


LANCAtTERi 


>m   iOHN    OUNLAK 


Washington's     Orders     to     the 

Farmers    Living    near 

Valley  Forge 


204 


LIFE  IN  WAR  TIME 


Pennsylvania  had  no  trouble  in  selling  their  produce  at  good 
prices. 

Army  Supplies.  —  The  armies  were  likely  to  suffer  for  food 
as  soon  as  they  moved  far  from  the  waterways.  The  coun- 
try was  thinly  settled  and  little  food  could  be  found  in  any 
one  region.  The  roads  were  poor  and  there  were  few  wagons. 
In  1778  a  cargo  of  clothing,  sorely  needed  by  the  colonial 

soldiers,  reached  a 
port  in  North  Caro- 
lina, but  it  was 
necessary  to  send 
to  Pennsylvania  for 
w^agons.  The  next 
year  Philadelphia 
had  more  flour  than 
it  could  sell,  while 
Washington's  sol- 
diers in  eastern 
New  Jersey  and  on  the  Hudson  were  starving.  One 
difficulty  was  that  the  officers  whom  Congress  put  in  charge 
of  supplies  did  not  understand  how  to  manage  the  matter. 

Valley  Forge.  —  This  partly  accounts  for  the  sufferings 
of  Washington's  army  while  Howe  occupied  Philadelphia. 
Washington's  camp  was  at  Valley  Forge,  a  village  twenty- 
five  miles  northwest  of  the  city.  The  soldiers  lived  in  huts 
such  as  frontiersmen  usually  built,  but  they  were  in  want  of 
blankets,  clothing,  shoes,  and  even  food.  About  Christmas 
Washington  wrote  to  Congress  that  2,898  men  were  unfit 
for  duty  because  of  lack  of  clothing.  Many  whose  shoes 
had  worn  out  cut  blankets  into  strips  and  wound  these 
around  their  feet.  Sometimes  the  only  food  they  had  was 
dough  baked  in  their  fire-places.  Washington  was  surprised 
that  his  soldiers  did  not  all  abandon  him.  Indeed  2,300  did 
desert  and  joined  the  British  army  in  Philadelphia,  where 


Washington's  Headquarters  at  Valley  Forge 


MONEY  AND  INDUSTRIES 


205 
At  the  close 


they  were  sure  of  food.     Others  went  home 
of  the  winter  only  5,000  remained. 

Paper  Money.  —  One  reason  why  General  Howx  could 
obtain  plenty  of  food  for  his  army,  while  Washington's  sol- 
diers were  on  the  verge  of  starvation,  was  that  the  British 
could  pay  in  gold  and  silver.  Washington  was  not  so  for- 
tunate.   Congress  could  not  raise  enough  money  by  taxation 


i|oi<E   SIXTH    OF 
H  DOLLAR 

in    According 
|l|/o  a  ReJolu-\ 

^        W  a/ Phi -I 

ladelphia, 


m 


§One  Sixth  of  a  Dollar 


iPrinted  by  Hall  &  Sellers, 
g    in  Philadelphia.    1776.    § 


Face  Back 

Paper  Money  of  the  Revolution 

Reduced  facsimile 

and  tried  to  pay  expenses  with  paper  money,  as  the  colonies 
had  done  many  times  before.  The  states  also  issued  paper 
money.  This  money  sometimes  lost  a  tenth  of  its  value  in 
a  single  month.  Prices  as  a  result  rose  rapidly.  In  1781  a 
pair  of  shoes  cost  $100  in  paper  money,  a  bushel  of  potatoes 
$24,  a  bushel  of  corn  $40,  and  a  cow  $1,200.  It  is  not 
surprising  that  the  Pennsylvania  farmers  were  ready  to 
exchange  their  products  for  British  gold. 

Industries  during  the  War.  —  When  the  colonies  declared 
themselves  independent,  it  was  no  longer  necessary  to  obey 


2o6  LIFE    IN   WAR   TIME 

the  British  laws  checking  the  manufacture  of  hats,  cloths, 
and  steel.  At  the  same  time  the  demand  for  them  increased 
because  trade  with  Europe  was  either  cut  off  or  was  carried 
on  with  great  difficulty.  Most  people  dressed  in  homespun, 
as  they  had  done  in  the  earher  time.  Makers  of  guns,  saddles, 
and  powder  were  kept  busy.  Towns  like  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Waterbury,  Connecticut,  became  famous  for 
gun  making.  At  the  Principio  Iron  Works  in  Maryland  can- 
non balls  were  cast  for  the  Continental  army.  It  was  very 
difficult  to  obtain  enough  salt,  since  the  supply  from  Europe 
was  interrupted.  The  salt  wells  near  Syracuse,  New  York, 
were  known,  but  salt  from  them  was  not  marketed  until 
several  years  later.  Under  the  circumstances  it  was  neces- 
sary to  evaporate  sea  water.  For  this  purpose  tanks  were 
constructed  at  New  Bedford  and  on  Cape  Cod. 

Commerce.  —  The  war  did  not  put  an  end  to  foreign  trade. 
This  trade  must  have  been  large,  for  in  the  first  four  years 
of  the  war  the  English  captured  over  500  vessels,  most  of 
them  near  the  coast.  About  200  were  engaged  in  trade 
with  Europe  or  the  West  Indies.  American  merchants  often 
armed  their  vessels,  receiving  from  Congress  letters  author- 
izing them  to  capture  vessels  of  the  enemy.  These  armed 
ships  owned  by  private  persons  were  called  privateers.  They 
scoured  the  seas  for  English  merchant  vessels,  which  they 
took  to  Europe  for  sale.  They  also  carried  cargoes.  With 
the  money  so  obtained  they  bought  European  goods  needed 
in  the  states. 

The  trade  with  the  French  and  Dutch  West  Indies  was 
especially  lively.  The  Dutch  were  glad  to  exchange  salt- 
peter, from  which  powder  was  made,  for  Virginia  tobacco. 
If  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay  was  too  closely  watched  by 
British  cruisers,  the  tobacco  was  hauled  in  wagons  to  the 
North  Carolina  coast,  and  shipped  from  there  to  the  W^est 
Indies.     In  1 78 1 ,  when  the  British  admiral  captured  the  Dutch 


THE  LOYALISTS  207 

island  of  St.  Eustatia,  he  found  hogsheads  of  tobacco  and 
casks  of  rice  piled  up  on  the  shore  by  the  hundred.  Some  of 
this  tobacco  was  owned  by  British  merchants  who  were 
making  money  rapidly  in  trading  with  the  ''rebels."  Within 
four  years  twenty-four  milHon  pounds  of  Chesapeake  tobacco 
found  their  way  to  the  English  market.  From  1779  until 
the  war  closed  trade  with  Europe  brought  to  the  states  nearly 
all  the  commodities  they  needed.  Travelers  were  astonished 
to  see  that  the  colonists  were  prospering  in  spite  of  the  war. 

Sufferings  of  the  Loyalists.  —  The  Revolution  was  a  civil 
war  for  two  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  EngUsh  colonists 
were  fighting  against  Englishmen  from  the  mother  country. 
In  the  second  place,  the  colonists  were  fighting  against  one 
another.  Before  the  war  ended  nearly  50,000  colonists 
served  on  the  British  side  either  as  militia  or  as  regular  sol- 
diers. Some  in  small  bands,  especially  in  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia,  waged  war  with  their  neighbors.  Such  bands, 
whether  of  loyahsts  or  patriots,  were  more  cruel  than  the 
regular  troops  of  either  side. 

In  the  end  the  loyalists  lost  nearly  everything  they  owned. 
Their  lands  were  seized  by  the  states  and  commonly  used  to 
reward  the  Continental  soldiers.  In  many  regions  they  were 
fortunate  if  they  escaped  being  tarred  and  feathered. 

Exiles  in  Canada.  —  Many  of  the  loyahsts  were  driven 
into  exile.  They  went  principally  to  Nova  Scotia  or  to 
the  western  part  of  the  province  of  Quebec.  The  British 
government  treated  them  generously,  giving  heads  of  families 
500  acres  of  land  and  single  men  300.  They  were  also  given 
tools  with  which  to  work. 

Two  Other  Migrations.  —  During  the  war  there  were  two 
other  migrations.  One  was  from  the  coast  towns  to  the 
interior  of  the  states.  The  trade  of  many  coast  towns  was 
ruined  by  the  nearness  of  British  ships,  cruising  off  shore  on 
the  watch  for  colonial  vessels.     A  part  of  their  inhabitants 


2o8 


LIFE  IN  WAR  TIME 


were  obliged  to  find  employment  elsewhere.  Others  moved 
to  safer  places,  taking  their  industries  with  them.  The  result 
was,  as  a  French  traveller  remarked,  that  the  colonists  gained 
not  only  freedom,  but  a  more  even  spread  of  their  population. 
The  second  migration  was  more  important.  It  passed 
over  the  mountains  into  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys. 
Its    beginnings   go   back    to  the   French   and   Indian  War. 


pENNSYl/VA^ll|?^;;:st;; 


-...■■' "^Of 


n'\ 


'    -•■^;N     o;    R     t'  H'j'^^f^C^    A.    R     O    ,L      I      N     A..^^ 


X         "~;  SOUTH  carolinan..      "^ 


Mountain  Trails  and  the  Western  Country 

Hunters  and  trappers  paid  little  attention  to  the  rule  of  the 
British  government  concerning  the  great  Indian  territory  west 
of  the  Appalachians.  1  Three  mountain  trails  led  from  the 
older  settlements  toward  the  west.  One  was  Braddock's  road 
to  Pittsburgh.  Another  led  to  the  ''blue  grass"  region  of  Ken- 
tucky through  Cumberland  Gap,  where  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
and  Kentucky  now  meet.  The  third  followed  the  Holston 
River  or  the  French  Broad  into  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee. 
The  story  of  the  pioneers  who  crossed  the  mountains,  espe- 
cially that  of  Daniel  Boone,  the  greatest  of  frontier  hunters 
and  fighters,  is  thrilling. 

1  See  page  i6o. 


KENTUCKY  AND  TENNESSEE 


209 


Cumberland  Gap 


Beginnings  of  Kentucky. — ^  In  1769  Boone  explored  the 
trail  through  Cumberland  Gap  into  Kentucky,  then  a  part 
of  Virginia.  The  colonial  assembly  planned  to  make  it  the 
regular  highway  into  their  western  lands,  but  it  long  remained 
simply  a  path.  In  1774  James  Harrod  and  thirty  compan- 
ions laid  out  Harro.dsburg  on  the  Kentucky  River,  and  the 
year  following 
Boone  founded 
Boo  nesbor  - 
ough  near  by. 
Each  settler 
marked  off  his 
own  farm. 
The  land  was 
plentiful  and 
it  made  little 
difference 

whether  he  took  400  or  1,000  acres.  Most  of  the  early 
settlers  in  Kentucky  depended  upon  hunting  and  trapping 
to  obtain  furs,  which  they  sold  in  the  colonies  or  states. 

Tennessee.  —  The  story  of  early  Tennessee  was  similar. 
In  1769  a  family  settled  on  Watauga  Creek  in  eastern  Ten- 
nessee. The  following  year  James  Robertson,  whom  the 
people  of  Tennessee  like  to  call  the  -^father"  of  their  state, 
settled  in  the  same  region.  Many  others  soon  joined  the 
new  settlements. 

The  Revolutionary  War  instead  of  delaying  the  growth 
of  the  western ,  settlements,  helped  them.  Many  colonists, 
leaving  the  regions  threatened  by  war,  took  their  way  over  the 
mountains.  The  great  danger  came  from  Indian  attacks 
supported  by  the  British  garrison  at  Detroit  or  at  other  posts 
taken  from  France  in  1763.  The  Indians  did  not  require 
much  urging,  for  the  settlers  were  invading  their  hunting 
grounds. 


2IO 


LIFE  IN  WAR  TIME 


"Wyoming  Massacre.  —  The  Germans  and  Scotch-Irish  of 
western  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  suffered  the  most.  One 
band  of  Indians  fell  upon  the  settlements  in  the  Wyoming 
Valley,  where  the  Susquehanna  River  breaks  through  the 
mountains  of  northern  Pennsylvania.  The  Indians  drove 
from  the  valley  those  whom  they  did  not  kill,  burned  their 
homes,  and  laid  waste  their  fields. 

The  people  of  the  frontier  were  obHged  to  protect  them- 
selves.   Washington  could  not  spare  any  of  his  troops.    The 

struggle  was  especially  fierce  in 
1777  and  1778.  The  Indian, 
Hke  the  white  man,  was  fighting 
for  his  home.  Both  used  the 
knife,  the  tomahawk,  and  the 
gun.  Their  warfare  was  more 
cruel  than  even  that  of  loyalists 
and  patriots  near  the  coast. 

The  Conqueror  of  the  North- 
west.—  In  1778  George  Rogers 
Clark,  one  of  the  greatest  hun- 
ters and  Indian  fighters  in  Ken- 
tucky, formed  the  plan  of  driving 
the  British  garrisons  out  of  the 
Northwest;  that  is,  from  the  region  lying  between  the  Ohio 
River  and  the  Great  Lakes.  Clark  thought  it  was  time  to 
attack  the  real  enemy  behind  the  Indian.  He  gathered  a 
small  force  of  Indian  fighters,  mostly  mountaineers  and 
hunters,  from  the  western  part  of  Virginia.  Governor  Patrick 
Henry  of  Virginia  encouraged  him  with  money  and  good 
words. 

In  May,  1778,  Clark's  little  army  of  150  men  boarded  sev- 
eral flat-boats  and  rowed  or  drifted  down  the  Ohio  River. 
Nearly  opposite  the  Tennessee  River,  Clark  landed  and  led 
his  force  northward  across  the  level  plains  to  the  old  French 


George  Rogers  Clark 


CLARK  AND  THE  NORTHWEST  211 

villages  in  Illinois.  He  reached  the  first,  Kaskaskia,  on  the 
Mississippi  River,  on  the  evening  of  July  4,  1778,  surprised 
the  unsuspecting  garrison,  and  occupied  the  town.  It  proved 
easy  to  induce  the  French  to  accept  American  rule,  particu- 
larly since  Clark  could  tell  them,  what  they  had  not  yet 
heard,  that  the  French  king  had  recently  become  the  ally  of 
the  United  States.  Some  of  the  adventurous  young  French- 
men joined  Clark's  force.  The  Indians,  who  called  him  the 
''Big  Knife  Chief,"  were  overawed  by  the  union  of  Ameri- 
cans and  French  and  ceased  to  oppose  him. 

Clark's  greatest  exploit  was  the  recapture  of  Fort  Vincennes 
on  the  Wabash,  which  the  British  commander  at  Detroit  had 
seized  in  the  preceding  winter.  The  rivers  were  full  and  the 
lowlands  flooded.  Clark's  men  while  on  their  march  were 
often  obliged  to  wade  in  icy  water.  Sometimes  it  was  up  to 
their  chins.  He  surprised  the  British  garrison  and  compelled 
it  to  surrender.  His  success  not  only  protected  the  settlers 
on  the  frontier  and  in  Kentucky,  but  also  gave  the  United 
States  a  claim  to  the  Northwest  when  peace  was  made.  For 
this  reason  Clark  is  called  the  conqueror  of  the  Northwest.^ 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  Where  did  the  war  do  great  damage?  Why  did  the  colonial  armies  some- 
times sufifer  from  want?     Why  did  the  British  armies  fare  better? 

2.  Why  did  Congress  use  paper  money?  Give  examples  of  prices  because 
of  its  use. 

3.  What  new  industries  were  started  during  the  Revolution? 

4.  What  trade  was  stopped  and  what  trade  was  continued  or  started  during 
the  war? 

5.  Give  two  reasons  why  the  Revolution  may  be  called  a  "Civil"  war. 
How  many  colonists  served  in  the  British  armies? 

6.  How  were  the  loyalists  treated?     What  did  many  of  them  do? 

7.  Describe  three  emigrations  that  went  on  during  the  Revolution.  Why 
did  the  westward  movement  go  on  faster  than  ever? 

^  The  region  which  Clark  had  seized  was  nearly  as  large  as  the  thirteen 
colonies.  They  contained  341,752  square  miles,  while  the  Northwest  contained 
265,878. 


212 


LIFE  IN  WAR  TIME 


8.  How  did  the  pioneers  in  the  West  live?  Why  were  they  in  great  danger? 
Who  were  their  leaders?     What  happened  in  the  Wyoming  Valley? 

9.  What  plan  did  George  Rogers  Clark  form  in  1778?  What  did  he  accom- 
plish? Why  did  the  French  of  the  Illinois  country  submit  readily  and  some 
of  them  join  Clark? 

EXERCISES 

1.  On  an  outline  map  shade  the  regions  that  saw  British  armies  before  1780. 

2.  Visit  any  museum  having  Revolutionary  relics  and  describe  the  objects 
used  in  everyday  life  of  those  days. 

3.  Collect  pictures  of  Revolutionary  relics. 

4.  Locate  on  the  map,  page  208,  the  three  roads  to  the  W^est  and  the  route 
of  George  Rogers  Clark. 

5.  What  states  now  form  the  region  won  for  the  United  States  by  Clark? 


A  Frontier  Settlement  —  Boonesborough 


CHAPTER  XIX 

HOW   THE   FRENCH   HELPED    THE    COLONISTS 

Good  News  from  France.  —  In  the  winter  of  1 777-1 778  the 
outlook  for  the  colonial  cause  seemed  dark.  Not  only  was 
the  Continental  army  at  Valley  Forge  in  distress  from  lack 
of  food  and  clothing,  but  a  group  of  officers  and  members  of 
Congress  plotted  to  get  rid  of  Washington  and  put  Gates  in 
his  place.  Their  plan  came  to  nothing,  and  with  spring  news 
arrived  that  on  February  6  King  Louis  XVI  of  France  had 
become  the  ally  of  the  young  repubhc. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  troubles  between  England  and 
her  colonies  the  French  had  looked  on  with  increasing  inter- 
est. Many  Frenchmen  were  eager  for  a  chance  of  revenge  on 
account  of  the  losses  which  their  country  had  suffered  in  the 
recent  war.  Others  were  interested  in  the  cause  of  the  colo- 
nists. They  were  ready  to  cheer  on  men  who  claimed  the 
right  to  govern  themselves.  They  admired  the  Americans 
also  because  the  colonial  farmers  and  planters  appeared  to 
be  living  more  natural  Hves  than  Europeans.  In  America 
there  were  no  princes  or  lords.  Every  man  seemed  to  have 
an  equal  opportunity  to  make  the  most  of  himself. 

As  soon  as  the  war  broke  out  Congress  sent  agents  to  the 
countries  of  Europe,  hoping  for  aid  against  Great  Britain. 
Fortunately  one  of  the  commissioners  to  France  was  Ben- 
jamin FrankKn.  His  homely  sayings  in  Poor  Richard^s 
Almanac,  his  clever  inventions,  like  the  stove,  and  his  dis- 
covery, by  means  of  a  kite,  that  lightning  is  electricity,  had 
already  made  him  famous.     He  was  regarded  as  a  scientist 


214 


THE  FRENCH  HELPED  THE  COLONIES 


and  a  philosopher.  His  simple  manners  and  dress  helped  win 
the  love  of  the  French,  who  were  growing  weary  of  wigs  and 
laces  and  rufHes.  Franklin  styles,  Franklin  caps,  Franklin 
snuff-boxes,  and  Franklin  walking-sticks  became  the  craze 

in  Paris.  His  portraits  and 
busts  appeared  everywhere, 
until  he  declared  to  his  daugh- 
ter that  her  ''father's  face  was 
as  well  known  as  the  moon." 

The  French  first  aided  the 
colonies  secretly,  giving  cloth- 
ing, powder,  and  guns  for  the 
Continental  army  to  Franklin 
or  the  other  commissioners. 
Similar  aid  was  obtained  from 
Spain.  Besides,  several  million 
dollars  were  lent  to  the  Uni- 
ted States,  to  be  repaid  when 
peace  was  made.  Some  influential  officials  thought  the 
time  had  now  come  for  an  attack  upon  the  ancient  enemy 
of  France.  Others  wished  to  wait  until  the  colonial  troops 
gained  a  decisive  victory.  The  news  of  the ;  capture  of 
Burgoyne  and  his  army  put  an  end  to  their  hesitation,  and 
Louis  XVI  agreed  to  a  treaty  of  alliance. 

Lafayette  and  Steuben.  —  Many  young  Frenchmen  had 
already  come  to  America  on  their  own  account  to  help  the 
colonists,  some  in  search  of  adventure  or  glory,  others  because, 
like  the  Americans,  they  wanted  to  fight  for  ''hberty."  No 
other  became  so  famous  or  gave  so  much  valuable  service 
as  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  a  young  nobleman  of  great 
wealth  and  influential  family.  Lafayette  was  barely  twenty 
years  of  age  in  1777  when  he  joined  Washington's  army. 
He  had  been  educated  in  a  military  school  and  was  given  a 
high  rank  in  the  Continental  army.     He  generously  served 


Benjamin  Franklin 
After  the  portrait  by  Duplessis,  1783 


VALUE   OF   THE    FRENCH   ALLIANCE  215 

without  pay.  Washington  came  to  love  him  as  if  he  were 
a  son.  His  name  is  still  remembered  with  affection  by 
Americans. 

Another  foreigner  who  was  of  much  assistance  was  Baron 
Steuben,  a  Prussian  nobleman.  Steuben  was  an  experienced 
officer,  having  served  long  under 
Frederick  the  Great,  the  most 
famous  general  of  the  time. 
During  the  dreary  winter  at 
Valley  Forge  Steuben  trained 
the  soldiers  in  the  European 
mode  of  fighting.  Two  PoHsh 
nobles  also  fought  bravely  for  the 
cause — Kosciuszko,  who  helped 
win  the  victory  over  Burgoyne, 
and  Pulaski,  who  died  fighting 
at  the  head  of  his  troops  in  the 
attempt  to  recapture  Savannah.  Marquis  de  Lafayette 

Value  of  the  French  Alliance.  —  The  French  strengthened 
the  colonists  on  the  sea,  where  they  were  weakest.  Ever 
since  the  disasters  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  France 
had  been  busy  rebuilding  her  ruined  fleet.  In  1778  she  had 
nearly  as  many  battle-ships  as  England.  A  year  later  the 
French  persuaded  the  Spaniards  to  join  them  in  the  war, 
and  then  their  united  fleets  were  able  to  dispute  the  mastery 
of  the  seas  with  the  British.  From  1778,  and  especially 
from  1779,  the  English  were  too  busy  defending  their  colo- 
nies in  the  West  Indies  and  in  the  East  Indies,  and  their 
fortress  of  Gibraltar  at  the  entrance  of  the  Mediterranean, 
to  give  the  greatest  part  of  their  attention  to  the  war  in 
America. 

As  soon  as  the  British  government  knew  that  war  with 
France  was  certain,  General  Clinton,  who  had  taken  Howe's 
place  at  Philadelphia,  was  ordered  to  return  to  New  York  and 


2i6        THE  FRENCH  HELPED  THE   COLONIES 

to  send  8,000  of  his  troops  to  the  West  Indies  to  attempt  the 
conquest  of  the  French  islands.  Washington  pursued  the 
British,  attaci^ed  them  at  Monmouth,  and  hastened  their 
retreat.  He  then  encamped  at  White  Plains,  near  New 
York.  He  was  not  strong  enough  to  attack  the  city.  A 
French  fleet  appeared  off  the  coast,  but  did  not  attempt  to 
force  an  entrance  to  the  harbor.  It  finally  sailed  for  the 
West  Indies  after  a  storm  had  prevented  an  attack  upon 
Newport.  General  Clinton,  however,  soon  withdrew  the 
Newport  garrison  to  New  York. 

New  Enemies  of  Great  Britain.  —  Before  long  the  British 
government  added  to  the  number  of  its  enemies.  British  war 
ships  claimed  the  right  to  search  the  merchant  ships  of  other 
countries  in  order  to  see  if  they  were  supplying  the  enemy 
with  powder,  guns,  or  anything  else  needed  in  war.  In 
doing  this  they  paid  so  little  attention  to  the  rights  of  other 
nations  that  the  Dutch,  the  Danes,  the  Prussians,  the  Swedes, 
and  the  Russians  prepared  to  resist  by  force.  With  the 
Dutch  the  quarrel  led  to  war. 

All  this  v/as  fortunate  for  Washington  and  the  colonial 
cause.  Congress  and  the  army  were  in  a  desperate  situation. 
The  paper  money  was  fast  losing  its  value.  Another  mis- 
fortune added  to  Washington's  trials.  Benedict  Arnold, 
one  of  the  ablest  and  bravest  of  his  officers,  whom  he  had 
trusted  as  a  friend,  went  over  to  the  British.  What  made 
Arnold's  treachery  still  blacker  was  his  attempt  to  betray  the 
fortifications  at  West  Point,  the  strongest  position  on  the 
Hudson.  His  plans  were  discovered  in  time  to  save  West 
Point,  but  he  escaped  to  New  York.  He  served  under  the 
British  flag  until  the  end  of  the  war,  ravaging  parts  of 
Connecticut  and  Virginia,  and  making  his  name  a  by-word 
among  his  fellow  countrymen. 

Exploits  on  the  Sea.  —  The  only  war  ships  that  the  Ameri- 
cans possessed  were  remodeled  merchant  vessels.    No  one  of 


EXPLOITS  ON  THE  SEA 


217 


them  was  large  enough  to  engage  in  battle  with  an  English 
ship-of-the-line.  The  British  fleet  soon  drove  from  the  sea 
the  few  ships  that  Congress  had  armed.  If  the  control  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  as  a  base  of  operations  was  to  be  taken 
from  the  British,  it  must  be  by  the  French  fleets.  Neverthe- 
less, captains  of  American  privateers,  occasionally  of  war 
ships,  did  great  harm  to  British  trade, 
capturing  320  merchant  vessels  in 
1777  alone. 

The  hero  of  the  greatest  exploit 
of  the  little  colonial  navy  was  John 
Paul  Jones.  In  1779  the  French 
king  lent  Jones  a  large  remodeled 
merchant  vessel,  in  order  that  he 
might  attack  British  merchant 
ships  as  they  were  entering  or  leav- 
ing their  home  ports.  Jones  called 
his  ship  the  Bon  Homme  Richard^ 
in  honor  of  his  friend  Franklin  and 
Franklin's   famous  almanac. 

In  September,  1779,  the  Richard  had  a  terrible  fight  with 
the  British  frigate  ^  Serapis  near  the  mouth  of  the  Humber 
River,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  England.  The  Serapis  was 
stronger  and  swifter.  The  only  chance  of  victory  for  Jones 
was  to  close  with  his  enemy  and  lash  the  two  ships  together. 
This  he  did  after  the  Bon  Homme  Richard  was  on  fire.  His 
men  then  boarded  the  Serapis  and  compelled  the  British  to 
surrender.  The  Richard  was  now  sinking,  and  Jones  trans- 
ferred his  crew  and  those  who  had  been  wounded  to  the 
Serapis.  A  few  hours  later  the  Richard  sank,  carrying  down 
the  brave  men  who  had  fallen  in  the  struggle. 

War  in   the   South,    1778-1781.  —  In   1778   Clinton    took 

^  A  ship-of-the-line  is  a  battle-ship.  A  frigate  was  smaller,  carrying  28  to 
44  guns.     The  Serapis  carried  44. 


John  Paul  Jones 
After  the  etching  by  A.  Varen 


2i8        THE  FRENCH  HELPED  THE  COLONIES 

advantage  of  the  absence  of  the  French  fleet  in  the  West 
Indies  to  shift  the  war  to  the  southern  states.  Washington 
could  not  send  the  southern  patriots  much  help.  For  a 
time  the  British  had  things  their  own  way  in  Georgia  and 
South  Carohna.  They  took  Savannah  in  1778,  and  Charles- 
ton in  1780.  The  revolutionary  army  in  these  states  was 
either  captured  or  broken  up. 

The  conquest  of  the  Carolinas  was  far  from  complete,  as 
Major  Ferguson,  commander  of  the  best  loyaUst  regiment  in 
the  British  service,  learned  to  his  cost.  Within  a  few  weeks 
after  a  Continental  army  under  General  Gates  had  been  dis- 
persed at  Camden,  Ferguson  ventured  into  the  mountains. 
The  settlers  assembled  quickly  under  the  leadership  of 
Sevier  and  other  pioneers,  surrounded  Ferguson  at  King's 
Mountain  October  7,  1780,  and  killed  or  captured  his  whole 
force. 

Marion,  Pickens,  and  Sumter.  —  Other  fearless  patriots 
like  Francis  Marion,  Andrew  Pickens,  and  Thomas  Sumter 
kept  the  flame  of  revolution  burning  in  the  South.  They 
formed  small  bands  of  volunteers,  who  came  and  went  as 
they  wished,  and  served  at  their  own  expense.  Their  men 
were  wretchedly  equipped  and  clothed,  but  full  of  zeal  and 
patriotism.  Such  a  band  would  lie  hidden  in  the  deep  forests 
and  mountain  valleys  until  an  opportunity  came  to  surprise 
a  party  of  British  foragers  or  their  loyaKst  aUies.  Marks- 
men then  stealthily  approached  the  British  camps  and  shot 
the  soldiers  as  they  went  about  their  ordinary  pursuits.  It 
was  a  new  kind  of  warfare  and  greatly  annoyed  the  British. 
Cornwallis,  who  was  in  command  of  the  British  army  at  the 
South,  wrote  home  calling  Sumter  "the  greatest  plague  in 
the  country."  ''But  for  Sumter  and  Marion,"  he  said, 
"South  Carohna  would  be  at  peace." 

What  Greene  accomplished.  —  After  the  defeat  of  Gates, 
Washington  sent  Nathaniel  Greene,  his  best  general,  with  a 


REFERENCE  MAP  FOR  THE  REVOLUTION 
SOUTHERN  STATES 


THE  WAR  IN  THE  SOUTH 


219 


Charlottesville  <>•-•. 


J;:::Guil/orJ  •b\ 

DtFtATED^Q^A\R         O 
■■GS,  MOUNTAIN 


i;a.KiNGS, 


Charlotte 

0  Ninety  Six^^  Camden'^ 
CAROLINA 


small  army  to  the  Carolinas.  Although  Morgan,  one  of  his 
officers,  promptly  broke  up  a  British  force  at  Cowpens  and 
Greene  himself  checked  Cornwallis  at  Guilford  Court  House, 
his  army  was  not  strong  enough  to  defeat  the  British  in  open 
battle.  But  the  result  of  his  skilful  management  was  that 
CornwalKs  was  obliged 
to  withdraw  to  the 
coast  to  obtain  sup- 
plies and  reinforce- 
ments. 

Cornwallis  in  Vir- 
ginia. —  In  the  spring 
of  1 78 1  Cornwallis 
abandoned  the  half- 
finished  conquest  of 
the  Carolinas  and 
marched  into  Virginia, 
which  he  regarded  as 

the  center  of  colonial  resistance.  If  Virginia  were  subdued, 
he  thought,  the  king's  authority  would  again  be  respected. 
Already  a  British  force  was  fighting  in  Virginia  against  a 
Continental  army  under  Lafayette.  While  Cornwallis 
marched  northward,  Greene  began  a  campaign  which  ended 
in  the  recovery  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia.  British 
garrisons  held  only  Charleston  and  Savannah. 

The  Allies  plan  to  Capture  Cornwallis.  ^- Meanwhile  a 
French  army  of  5,500  soldiers,  led  by  excellent  officers  and 
commanded  by  the  Count  de  Rochambeau,  had  reached 
America.  In  the  winter  of  1 779-1 780  Lafayette  had  visited 
France  and  had  persuaded  the  king  to  send  this  aid.  Wash- 
ington wished  the  French  army  and  the  French  fleet  to  unite 
with  him  in  an  attack  on  New  York,  but  Rochambeau 
thought  this  too  difficult.  Cornwallis's  appearance  in  Vir- 
ginia seemed  to  offer  a  better  chance  of  success.     Word  was 


Cornwallis's  Wandering  Campaign 
AT  THE  South 


220        THE   FRENCH  HELPED   THE   COLONIES 

received  from  the  Count  de  Grasse,  commander  of  a  large 
French  fleet  in  the  West  Indies,  that  he  would  be  on  the 
coast  of  Virginia  by  September  i,  1781. 

Cornwallis  had  fortified  Yorktown,  from  which  he  expected 
to  keep  open  communication  by  sea  with  New  York.  York- 
town  would  thus  serve  as  a  starting  point  for  the  conquest  of 
Virginia.  Washington  and  Rochambeau  believed  that  with 
the  help  of  a  fleet  CornwalHs  could  be  captured  before  Clin- 
ton could  send  him  aid.  Washington  left  a  small  force  to 
watch  Clinton  at  New  York,  and  with  Rochambeau  crossed 
New  Jersey  on  the  way  to  Virginia.  De  Grasse  kept  his 
promise  and  by  August  29  was  on  the  Virginia  coast.  A 
British  fleet  which  sailed  from  New  York  was  so  crippled 
in  battle  with  the  French  that  it  was  obliged  to  return  to 
New  York  for  repairs.  Before  it  had  a  chance  to  refit  and 
sail  to  Virginia  again,  Washington  and  Rochambeau  had 
forced  CornwalHs  to  surrender  On  October  19,  1781,  Corn- 
wallis and  his  army,  numbering  more  than  7,000  men,  became 
prisoners  of  war. 

End  of  the  War.  —  The  surrender  of  CornwalHs  ended  the 
Revolutionary  War.  When  Lord  North,  the  English  prime 
minister,  heard  the  news,  he  exclaimed,  "  It  is  all  over !  It 
is  all  over !  "  He  and  the  other  ministers  became  anxious  to 
withdraw  the  garrisons  from  New  York,  Charleston,  and 
Savannah,  before  they,  too,  should  be  lost.  These  soldiers 
might  be  needed  to  defend  England  against  the  gathering 
hosts  of  European  enemies.  Before  anything  could  be  done 
Lord  North,  whose  failure  to  subdue  the  rebellious  colonists 
had  lost  him  the  confidence  of  parliament,  was  obliged  to 
resign.  Men  who  disapproved  of  the  plans  of  dealing  with 
the  colonists  now  became  the  advisers  of  George  III.  They 
sent  word  to  Franklin  in  Paris  that  they  were  ready  to  talk 
about  terms  of  peace. 

An  Independent  Nation.  —  It  was  nearly  two  years  before 


AN  INDEPENDENT   NATION 


221 


terms  of  peace  were  agreed  upon.  The  interests  of  France, 
Spain,  and  Holland,  as  well  as  of  the  American  states,  had 
to  be  provided  for  in  the  final  agreements.  Fortunately  for 
Great  Britain  a  fleet  under  Rodney  defeated  De  Grasse  in 
the  West  Indies  in  the  spring  of  1782,  after  which  the  French 
did  not  demand  hard  terms 
of  Great  Britain. 

According  to  the  treaty  of 
peace,  signed  in  Paris  in 
September,  1783,  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States 
was  recognized  by  Great  Brit- 
ain. The  new  nation  was 
also  to  possess  the  region 
from  the  Alleghanies  to  the 
Mississippi  River  and  from 
the  Great  Lakes  to  Florida, 
although  the  territory  north 
of  the  Ohio  had  been  included 
by  the  Quebec  Act  in  the 
province  of  Quebec.  The 
Americans  were  to  retain  the 
right  to  fish  off  the  coasts  of 
Nova  Scotia  and  Newfound- 
land. 

Spain  received  Florida,  which  England  had  possessed  for 
twenty  years.  France  gained  little  but  glory  from  the  war, 
although  she  had  added  more  than  $300,000,000  to  her 
national  debt.  But  the  French  rejoiced  that  they  had  hum- 
bled their  ancient  enemy.  Many  of  them  rejoiced  also  at 
the  success  of  their  new  friends,  the  Americans.  Up  to  the 
Revolutionary  War  the  colonists  had  regarded  the  French  as 
relentless  foes,  who  with  their  Indian  allies  might  fall  upon 
the  defenceless  frontier  settlements.     Henceforth  they  were 


A  GENERAL    PEACE 


NE^r-rORK,    March  i-i,   1783 

LyfTE  la/}  ^ngit.  an  EXP  RE  S  S  from  Nfrv-Jtrjey, 

brought  the  fvUowing  yfccount 
•T  H  A  T  00  Sundj>  l«ft.  tbt  Twtijry.  Third  Inftant.  >  Vfffcl  am»c<J  »t 

Pri,|adcl(.tll«,    ni     Thinjr-fivc    U>7>   tron.  C»dix.    v..tr,    Oijfoi.h,.     W 
Ihr    Omiimnial  t'o»|^</i,    inlomiin({  thtm,   ih«i  -jfi  Muiid'/  th«  \  «miCTh 

J  'g'e^nerJl  p ejce. 

bnwtt.i,Cr,a'Brlta<»,  /■'ranr,,  Spaio,  HMttni.  u>i  ih«  Unntil  StQir,  o( 
jijntrna^  wcntlo^kb■1  Pofij,  by  All  ihf  ComoMnioncrk  fromthofc  Puwcr«  . 
in  tonltijucnr.  o(  •huh.  HuflililK«,  by  S<>  ond  L^nd,  »<rt  lu  ico/<  m 
Ejrupt.  ^n*  WcdnrkJay  ihc  1  wemidh  Day  of  frtbruary  ,  knd  in  Aoient.,on 
fd.yih.  Tweniirh  U»y  ol  M»rth,  a,  tht  prtfcm  >  cai  One  ThoulUid 
.  horidrtd  *nd  Eighrj.ThfT*. 

u'pDrtnt  loitUigenee  was  lad  Night  announctJ  hj  the 
>.  and  pcj«  Rtjoicmgi  ai  Clii.abnb  Town. — HcTpecnnK 
■  hii  ir„>y  inifrrd.n^  E,tn<  DO  mot  aF«  jtt  nccivcd,  t>ui 
iprOcd. 


Tb. 


THIS  vT 
Tinng  ol  Cat 
»lif  Pa/iKuU<- 


f>ttup>.diy  J.m«i  k.vmpo..,  Pr^nrmtb,  K>mg  ,  M«f  Etall^n  Majtfi^ 


'«) 


juUIAXMOOMHaaU 


A  Broadside  Announcing  Peace 
Reduced  facsimile 


222         THE  FRENCH  HELPED  THE  COLONIES 

remembered  as  a  generous  nation  which  had  come  to  their 
aid  when  the  colonial  cause  was  darkest. 

Washington's  Services.  —  Washington  did  one  more  great 
service  to  his  country  before  he  returned  to  Mount  Vernon  as 
a  private  citizen.  Both  soldiers  and  officers  in  the  army  were 
discontented  because  Congress  had  left  them  unpaid.  Many 
men  feared  that  they  would  refuse  to  go  home  now  that  the 
war  was  over,  but  would  remain  together  and  take  by  force 


Mount  Vernon 

what  they  could  not  obtain  peacefully  from  the  bankrupt 
government.  It  was  even  whispered  about  that  some  of  theri 
wished  to  make  Washington  a  king  as  their  only  hope  of  fair 
treatment.  When  Washington  heard  of  this,  he  was  much 
distressed.  He  used  his  influence  with  the  officers  and  with 
the  members  of  Congress  to  such  good  effect  that  a  just  agree- 
ment was  made.  Soldiers  and  officers  went  home  quietly. 
Washington  now  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army  and 
returned  to  Mount  Vernon,  from  which  he  had  been  absent 
more  than  eight  years.  He  accepted  no  salary  for  his  ser- 
vices, nor  would  he  take  any  reward  after  the  war  was  over, 
although   his   plantation   had    suffered   from    neglect.    His 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES  223 

place  was  secure  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen.  With  him 
Franklin,  Adams,  Jefferson,  and  many  others  were  gratefully 
remembered. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  causes  had  the  colonists  for  discouragement  in  the  winter  of 
1777-1778?     What  news  encouraged  them? 

2.  Why  did  the  French  join  the  colonial  cause?  In  what  different  ways 
did  the  French  aid  the  colonies?  Why  was  the  coming  of  Lafayette  and 
Steuben  particularly  fortunate  for  Washington? 

3.  In  what  way  was  the  French  alliance  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  colo- 
nies? What  change  did  the  British  make  in  the  conduct  of  the  war  because 
of  the  alliance? 

4.  What  enemies  did  England  make  in  the  course  of  the  Revolution?  Why 
did  the  Spaniards  and  Dutch  also  go  to  war  with  England?  How  did  Eng- 
land's other  wars  affect  the  colonial  cause? 

5.  Did  the  colonies  have  a  navy?  What  were  the  privateers  doing  to  help 
the  colonial  cause? 

6.  Tell  the  story  of  John  Paul  Jones's  battle  with  the  Serapis. 

7.  Where  did  Clinton  try  to  carry  on  the  war  after  1778?  What  success 
did  he  have?  Why  did  he  fail  to  conquer  completely  the  southern  colonies? 
What  did  General  Greene  accomplish? 

8.  What  further  aid  did  France  give  the  colonies  in  1780?  What  plan  did 
Washington  and  Rochambeau  form? 

9.  Describe  the  capture  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown.  Why  did  the  loss  of 
the  army  of  Cornwallis  greatly  alarm  the  British  ministers?  What  were  they 
ready  to  do? 

10.  Why  did  it  take  nearly  two  years  after   the   battle   of   Yorktown   to 
arrange  the  terms  of  peace? 

11.  What  did  Spain  and  France  gain  from  their  war  with  England? 

12.  What  was  Washington's  service  to  his  country  just  before  retiring  from 
the  Revolutionary  army? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  an  account  of  the  help  that  the  French  gave  the  United  States 
during  the  Revolution. 

2.  Make  a  list  of   the  gains  besides  independence  secured  by  the  United 
States  in  the  treaty  of  peace. 

Important  Dates: 

1778.   French  alliance. 

1 78 1.   October.      Capture  of  Yorktown. 

1783.  Treaty  of  Peace. 


2  24        THE  FRENCH  HELPED   THE   COLONIES 


REVIEW    OF   THE   REVOLUTION 

1754-63.  The  French  and  Indian  War.  Frontiersmen  seeking  the  western 
lands  encroached  on  territory  claimed  by  the  French.  The  French 
lost  not  only  the  lands  in  dispute,  but  also  their  other  American 
colonies. 

1763-65.  England  (i)  continued  her  old  policy  of  interfering  with  the  free- 
dom of  the  trade  of  the  colonies,  enforcing  near  the  close  of  the 
French  War  and  afterward  laws  which  had  never  before  been  en- 
forced in  the  colonies,  (2)  attempted  to  maintain  a  regular  army  in 
the  colonies,  and  (3)  passed  laws  like  the  Stamp  Act  to  raise  money 
for  the  support  of  the  army. 

1765-75.  The  colonists  resisted  the  British  policy  by  refusing  to  trade  with 
England,  by  destroying  stamps,  burning  ships  sent  to  enforce  the 
trade  laws,  and  by  other  means,  like  throwing  the  tea  overboard. 

1768.  England  punished  the  colonies  by  increasing  the  regular  army,  and  in 
1774  by  closing  the  port  of  Boston  and  taking  away  some  of  Mas- 
sachusetts's  powers  of  self-government. 

1774.  The  colonists  at  the  Continental  Congress  united  in  resisting  such  acts, 

formed  a  general  agreement  not  to  trade  with  England,  and  prepared 
for  defense  if  war  came. 

1775.  The  battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord  began  the  war  of  the  Revolution. 

1776.  The  British  evacuated  Boston  and  seized  New  York  City.    Congress  set 

forth  a  Declaration  of  Independence  and  the  colonies  began  making 
permanent  state  governments. 

1777.  The  colonial  forces  captured  Burgoyne's  army,  and  the  British  took 

Philadelphia.     During  the  war  the  colonies   created  new  industries 
and  spread  westward. 

1778.  George  Rogers  Clark  conquered  the  Northwest.     The  French  formed  an 

alliance  with  the  colonies. 

1779.  Spain  joined  France  in  the  war. 

1780.  England  also  went  to  war  with  Holland.     Chnton  carried  the  Ameri- 

can war  into  the  southern  colonies. 
A   French   army  landed   in   America,  under   Count   de   Rochambeau, 
to  help  Washington. 

1 78 1.  The  United  Colonies  adopted  a  constitution,  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 

tion.    Cornwallis  was  captured  by  the  combined  work  of  Washing- 
ton, Rochambeau,  and  the  French  fleet. 
1783.   A  treaty  of  peace  was  agreed  to.     Thirteen  English  colonies  finally 
became  both  united  and  independent. 


CHAPTER  XX 


THE   DIFFICULTIES    OF   THE    NEW   REPUBLIC 

Our  Country  in  1783.  —  The  United  States  of  1783  was  in 
area  only  about  one-fourth  as  large  as  it  is  to-day.  More 
than  half  lay  west  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  This  part, 
save  for  a  few  settlements,  was  uninhabited  by  white  men. 
Even    the    region 


east  of  the  moun- 
tains was  thinly 
settled.  The 
greater  part  of  the 
population  lived 
near  the  coast  and 
in  the  richer  farm- 
ing valleys.  It  is 
impossible  to  say 
exactly  how  many 
inhabitants  the 
country  had,  for 
no  census  had  ever 
been  taken.  But  probably  about  3,250,000  persons  lived  in 
the  United  States,  not  counting  100,000  or  200,000  Indians. 
About  one-fifth  of  the  people  were  negro  slaves. 

The  present  state  of  Pennsylvania  has  more  than  twice  as 
many  people  as  the  whole  United  States  had  in  1783;  New 
York  City  has  one  and  one-half  times  as  many.  The  United 
States  was  not  only  the  youngest  but  also  one  of  the  smallest 
nations  in  the  world.  Great  Britain,  including  Ireland,  num- 
bered nearly  four  times  as  many  inhabitants;  Spain  more 
than  three  times;  and  France  eight  times. 


Our  Country  in  1783 

Black  dots  show  the  settled  regions  in  the  United 
States;  circles  show  the  regions  of  Canada  in  settlement; 
crosses  show  the  Spanish  settlements;  the  white  shows  the 
unoccupied  territory 


226        DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  NEW  REPUBLIC 

North  American  Neighbors.  —  The  neighbors  of  the  United 
States  in  North  America  were  few.  Small  EngHsh  settle- 
ments existed  in  Nova  Scotia.  Possibly  60,000  French  people 
lived  in  the  colony  of  Quebec.  About  40,000  loyalists,  who 
fled  from  the  United  States  during  the  Revolution,  formed 
the  main  part  of  the  population  in  two  new  British  provinces 
of  New  Brunswick  and  Upper  Canada.^  The  people  of  the 
United  States  looked  upon  these  people  as  Uving  in  the 
** frozen  north." 


Plan  of  a  Spanish  Mission  Settlement 

Spain  had  five  colonies  or  provinces  within  what  is  now 
the  United  States.  These  colonies  were  Florida  and  Loui- 
siana on  the  south  and  west,  some  small  mission  settlements 
in  Texas  and  New  Mexico  forming  the  out-posts  of  Mexico, 
and  a  new  colony,  California,  in  the  far  west.  In  1769  a 
party  of  Spanish  missionaries  and  soldiers  had  entered  Cali- 
fornia and  estabhshed  an  Indian  mission  at  San  Diego. 
Seven  years  later  they  estabhshed  a  mission  which  was  the 
beginning  of  San  Francisco,  the  great  city  of  the  Golden 
Gate.  Some  pushed  on  into  the  interior,  and  estabhshed 
other  missions,  placing  them  in  fertile  valleys  where  Indian 
tribes  might  be  reached.  The  good  monk,  Junipero  Serra, 
was  at  the  head  of  the  movement.     He  gloried  even  in  his 

^  In  1 79 1  Canada  was  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  which  were 
permitted  to  have  provincial  assemblies. 


NORTH  AMERICAN  NEIGHBORS 


227 


sufferings  as  he  tramped  across   terrible  deserts  or  visited 
hostile  Indians. 

The  news  that  a  mission  had  been  founded  was  received 
in  Mexico  with  rejoicing  and  the  ringing  of  bells.  Proclama- 
tions of  the  government  carried  the  story  to  the  humblest 
hamlet  and 
even  to  far- 
away Spain. 
The  Califor- 
nia missions, 
at  first  simple 
places  of  wor- 
ship and  resi- 
dence  for 
priests  and 
their  helpers, 
became  in  a 
short  time 
thriving  col- 
onies. Beau- 
tiful buildings  were  erected,  ruins  of  which  may  still  be 
seen  in  many  places  throughout  California.  Indians  were 
persuaded  to  abandon  their  wandering  life  and  settle  on  the 
mission  farms,  or  work  in  the  mission  kitchens  or  workshops. 
Each  mission  was  an  Indian  colony  with  a  few  Spanish  mis- 
sionaries and  army  officers. 

Soldiers  stationed  near  the  missions  were  almost  the  only 
other  Spaniards.  There  were,  however,  two  or  three  towns 
for  ordinary  settlers.  Los  Angeles  was  begun  in  1781.  The 
total  Spanish  population  in  California  was  probably  less 
than  a  tenth  of  the  Indian  population  living  at  the  mis- 
sions. The  sturdy  peasants  and  skilled  laborers  of  Spain 
did  not  go  there  any  more  than  they  did  to  Mexico  or  the 
West  Indies  or  any  other  Spanish  colony  in  the  New  World. 


A  California  Mission 
San  Luis  Rey 


228        DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  NEW  REPUBLIC 


To  the   PUBLIC. 

THE  FLYING  MACHINE,  kept  by 
John  Mercereau,  at  the  New  Blazing.Star-Feny, 
near  New- York,  Prts  off  from  Powles  Hook  every  Mon* 
day,  Wednefday,  and  Friday  Mornings,  for  Philadelphia, 
and  performs  the  Journey  in  a  Day  and  a  Half,  for  the 
Summer  Seafon ,  till  the  i  ft  of  November ;  from  that  Time 
to  go  twice  a  Week  (ill  the  firft  of  May,  when  they 
again  perform  it  three  Times  a  Week.  When  the  Stages 
go  only  twice  aWeek,  they  fet  off  Mondays  and  Thurf- 
days.    The  ^yaggons  in  Philadelphia   fet  out  from  the 


Except  along  the  borders  of  Florida  the  settlements  of  the 
new  republic  were  separated  from  those  of  its  neighbors  by 
vast  stretches  of  unoccupied  land.  The  Spaniards  advancing 
into  the  Southwest  and  the  people  of  the  states  moving  into 
the  Ohio  Valley  would  not  come  into  conflict  for  many  years. 
In  reality,  however,  they  were  entered  upon  a  new  race,  this 

time  for  the  possession  of 
the  Great  West. 

Danger  from  Disunion. 
—  In  1783  the  danger  to 
the  people  of  the  states 
came  from  their  lack  of 
union  rather  than  from  the 
rivalry  of  foreign  settle- 
ments. As  yet  they  had 
little  to  do  with  one  an- 
other. The  roads  were  few, 
rudely  made,  without  much 
attempt  at  grading.  The 
vessels  which  pKed  from 
port  to  port  sailed  on  no 
regular  schedule.  Travelers 
ordinarily  went  on  horse- 
back or  by  stage  coach. 
Several  stage-coaches  made  the  journey  each  week  between 
Boston  and  New  York,  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  Phil- 
adelphia and  Baltimore,  and  a  few  smaller  places.  The 
coach  was  really  a  stage-wagon,  something  like  the  covered 
light  wagons  in  common  use  to-day.  It  often  took  three  days, 
starting  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  traveling  until 
ten  at  night,  to  go  from  Philadelphia  to  New  York,  or  six 
days  from  New  York  to  Boston.  No  bridges  spanned  the 
large  rivers,  for  the  bridge-makers  or  carpenters  of  that  time 
had  not  learned  how  to  build  long  spans.     If  a  river  was 


Sign  of  the  George,  in  Second- flreet,  the  fame  Morning. 
The  PafTengers  are  dedred  tocrofs  the  Ferry  the  Evening 
before,  as  the  Stages  muft  fet  off  early  the  next  Morning. 
The  Price  foreach  PafTeng^T  is  T-wtnty  StMngs,  Proc.  and 
Goods  as  ufual.  PafTengers  going  Part  of  the  Way  to  pay 
in  Proportion. 

As  the  Propnetor  has  made  fuch  Improvements  upon 
the  Machines,  one  of  which  is  in  Imitation  of  a  Coach, 
he  hopes  to  merit  the  Favour  of  the  Publick. 

JOHN  MERCEREAU. 

^eyybrA  Ca2eae  jjji 

Stage-Coach  Announcement 


DANGER  FROM  DISUNION 


229 


shallow  it  could  be  forded;  if  wide  and  deep,  the  coach  could 
be  carried  across  on  a  ferry  boat.  Even  short  journeys  were 
full  of  excitement,  hardship,  and  danger. 

The  ordinary  man  seldom  traveled  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  his  county.  The  New  Englander  only  on  the  rarest  occa- 
sions traveled  south  of  the  Potomac,  or  the  Southerner  to 
the  North.  Dress,  social  customs,  and  even  uses  of  words 
and  phrases  varied  in  different  states.  Besides,  the  Dutch 
in  New  York,  the  Germans  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  French 
in  Detroit  and  the  Illinois  country  still  kept  the  language  and 
ways  of  their  fathers  in  the 
Old  World. 

Why  the  People  knew  so 
Little  of  One  Another.  — 
The  newspapers  were  more 
enterprising  than  they  had 
been  before  the  war,  but 
they  were  not  distributed 
through  the  post  -  offices, 
and  were  therefore  hard  to 
obtain.  The  post-offices 
handled  only  letters.  Post- 
riders  carried  the  little  mail 
there  was  in  saddle-bags  attached  to  the  saddles.  A  pair  of 
saddle-bags  was  enough  to  carry  the  mail  on  any  trip  be- 
tween New  York  and  Philadelphia  or  Boston  and  New 
York. 

People  living  in  small  towns  seldom  received  mail  oftener 
than  once  a  week.  It  was  harder  and  much  more  expensive 
to  send  a  letter  to  many  a  backwoods  or  frontier  town  than 
it  is  to-day  to  send  it  into  the  interior  of  China.  The  post- 
riders  usually  left  the  mail  at  the  town  inns. 

Would  the  Republic  endure?  —  Many  persons  wondered 
how  long  a  repubHc,  the  parts  of  which  were  so  loosely  con- 


POST-RIDER    OF    THE   OlDEN   TiMES 


230        DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  NEW  REPUBLIC 

nected  with  one  another,  would  hold  together.  It  was  really 
thirteen  republics,  for  the  Continental  Congress  had  Httle 
power,  and  this  Congress  was  the  only  central  authority.  A 
shrewd  Frenchman  called  the  United  States  ''a  giant  with- 
out bones."  He  probably  meant  that  the  republic  had  no 
king  or  nobles  to  manage  its  affairs.  Enghsh  people  thought 
that  the  Americans  would  repent  of  their  separation  and 
return  to  their  allegiance  to  George  III. 

Many  Americans  still  thought  independence  a  mistake. 
They  believed  that  it  meant  thirteen  small,  jealous,  quarrel- 
ing repubhcs,  helpless  before  the  first  enemy  who  should 
attack  them.  Some  talked  about  dividing  the  United  States 
into  three  groups,  one  made  up  of  the  New  England  states, 
another  of  the  middle  states  from  New  York  to  Maryland, 
and  a  third  of  the  southern  states.  A  few  wished  to  have 
a  king,  and  when  Washington  spurned  the  idea  that  he 
should  become  king,  they  suggested  a  son  of  George  III  or 
of  a  brother  of  Frederick  the  Great.  The  majority,  however, 
had  faith  in  their  experiment  with  a  republican  form  of 
government  and  a  union  of  all  the  states. 

What  Congress  accomplished.  —  The  Congress  of  the 
Confederation  accompHshed  some  things  of  great  value,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  it  possessed  little  authority.  With 
the  aid  of  Washington  it  carried  the  war  to  a  successful  end- 
ing. Its  agents  made  an  advantageous  peace  with  Great 
Britain.  When  the  war,  which  had  furnished  the  strongest 
reasons  for  union,  was  over.  Congress  kept  the  states  together 
until  they  became  accustomed  to  united  action.  What  in 
1 78 1  seemed  merely  a  ''league  of  friendship"  began  to  grow 
into  a  deep  and  lasting  union  for  the  common  good. 

A  New  System  of  Money.  —  Even  after  the  close  of  the 
war  seven  states  issued  paper  money.  Like  the  earher  issues 
most  of  this  was  never  redeemed  in  coin.  Paper  money  was 
the  cause  of  many  disputes  about  the  payment  of  debts. 


THE  NORTHWEST  TERRITORY 


231 


Copper  Cent  Coined  in  1783 


Still  there  was  another  difficulty.  The  people  used  foreign 
silver  and  gold  coins  in  ordinary  trade,  for  Congress  coined  no 
money.  These  foreign  coins  —  crowns,  doubloons,  guineas, 
Johanneses,  moidores, 
pistoles,  shilHngs,  and 
Spanish  dollars  —  often 
varied  in  value.  Many 
were  counterfeited  or 
had  their  edges  clipped. 
Washington  said  it 
would  soon  be  neces- 
sary to  carry  about  scales  in  order   to  weigh  such  coins. 

Although  Congress  was  unable  to  remedy  these  evils,  it 
provided  a  system  of  money  in  which  all  coins  could  be  given 
a  place  or  value.  The  system  might  be  used  in  planning  for 
new  coins  when  a  mint  was  estabhshed.  It  was  called  the 
decimal  system  because  the  cent,  the  second  measure  of  value, 
was  ten  times  the  mill,  which  was  the  first;  while  the  dime  was 
ten  times  the  cent;  and  the  dollar  was  ten  times  the  dime. 

The  Northwest  Territory.  —  Congress  invented  a  way  of 
managing  its  western  lands  which  helped  to  unite  the  states. 
George  Rogers  Clark  had  conquered  the  lands  northwest  of 
the  Ohio  in  1778.  The  United  States  had  been  allowed  to 
retain  these  in  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain.  But 
several  old  states,  Virginia,  New  York,  Connecticut,  and 
Massachusetts,  laid  claim  to  the  region.  Maryland  refused 
to  join  in  any  union  if  the  others  were  to  keep  great  tracts 
of  western  lands.  Finally  the  states  that  claimed  western 
lands  gave  up  most  of  them.^  These  lands  became  the  com- 
mon territory  of  all,  the  first  territory  of  the  United  States. 

^  Connecticut  kept  back  or  reserved  a  tract  120  miles  long,  lying  west  of 
Pennsylvania  and  south  of  Lake  Erie,  called  the  Western  Reserve.  In  time 
Connecticut  gave  part  of  this  land  to  its  citizens  who  had  suffered  from  British 
raids  during  the  Revolution  and  sold  part  to  a  land  company,  using  the  money 
for  the  benefit  of  public  schools.    Virginia  also  retained,  besides  the  Kentucky 


232        DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  NEW  REPUBLIC 

Surveying  Lands  in  the  "Northwest." — In  1785  Congress 
adopted  a  plan  of  surveying  the  western  lands.  Land  in  the 
old  colonies  had  been  loosely  and  carelessly  surveyed.  The 
frontier  settlers  often  made  their  own  boundaries  by  toma- 
hawk marks  on  the  trees.  This  led  to  innumerable  disputes 
between  farmers.  It  left  the  lines  between  farms  crooked 
and  made  many  strange-shaped  pieces  of  land  which  nobody 
wanted.  The  new  way  was  to  survey  the  western  territory 
into  squares  six  miles  on  a  side,  called  townships,  and  to 
divide  these  into  smaller  squares  called  sections,  one  mile  on 
a  side.  These  were  again  divided  into  smaller  squares  called 
'' quarters,"  160  acres  in  extent.  In  this  plan  four  quarters 
formed  a  section,  and  thirty-six  sections  a  township.  Each 
section  and  township  was  numbered  so  that  any  piece  of 
land  could  be  readily  located.  The  land  was  to  be  sold  at 
$1  an  acre.^  Congress  promised  the  settlers  to  give  the  six- 
teenth section  in  every  township  for  the  support  of  public 
schools. 

The  Ordinance  of  1787.  —  In  1787,  Congress  provided  a 
way  of  governing  the  Northwest  Territory.  Many  Revolu- 
tionary soldiers  wished  to  locate  within  it  the  lands  which 
Congress  had  promised  them.  Several  ofhcers  belonged  to 
the  Ohio  Company,  which  was  formed  to  buy  land  of  Con- 
gress and  sell  it  to  settlers.  Both  wished  a  stable  govern- 
ment in  the  territory,  capable  of  protecting  the  property  of 
the  settlers  and  of  deciding  disputes  between  them.  Such  a 
government  was  provided  by  a  law  called  the  Ordinance  of 
1787.  Congress  was  to  appoint  a  governor  and  judges  to 
rule  until  the  territory  numbered  5,000  inhabitants.  The 
territory  was  then  to  have  an  assembly  of  its  own.  As  soon 
as  any  part  of  the  territory  had  60,000  people  or  more,  it  was 

region,  some  lands  north  of  the  Ohio  River,  sometimes  called  the  Virginia 
Military  Reserve,  for  its  citizens  who  had  served  as  soldiers  in  the  Revolution. 
^In  1756  the  price  was  raised  to  $2. 


BEGINNINGS  OF  OHIO 


233 


to  become  a  state  equal  in  all  respects  to  the  older  states. 
The  new  state  would  also  become  a  part  of  the  union.  Con- 
gress promised  that  the  inhabitants  should  always  have  free- 
dom of  reUgion,  right  of  trial  by  jury,  and  free  republican 
state  governments.  It  also  declared  that  no  laborers  should 
be  held  as  slaves.  By  the  survey  act  of  1785  and  the  Ordi- 
nance of  1787  Congress  adopted  the  poHcy  of  encouraging  free 
laborers,  promising  them  cheap  land  and  poHtical  equahty. 


The  Settlement  at  the  "Point"  at  Marietta  in  1790 

Beginnings  of  Ohio.  —  The  Ohio  Company  immediately 
took  advantage  of  the  new  plan.  It  purchased  from  Con- 
gress several  hundred  thousand  acres  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  present  state  of  Ohio.  In  the  spring  of  1788 
General  Rufus  Putnam  and  a  band  of  New  Englanders 
reached  the  spot  where  the  Muskingum  River  flows  into 
the  Ohio  River.  By  the  middle  of  summer  many  acres  of 
growing  corn,  several  log  huts,  and  a  block-house  m.arked 
the  progress  of  the  new  settlement.  Out  of  gratitude  to 
the  French  for  aid  during  the  war,  the  settlers  named  the 
village  Marietta,  a  shortened  form  of  Marie  Antoinette, 
Queen  of  France.  Another  company  purchased  lands  farther 
down  the  Ohio,  including  the  site  of  Cincinnati. 

Emigration  to  the  West.  —  The  settlements  south  of  the 
Ohio  River,  in  the  present  state  of  Kentucky,  were  growing 


234        DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  NEW  REPUBLIC 


An  Emigrant's  Flatboat 


rapidly.  Twelve  thousand  persons  entered  the  region  in  a 
single  year.  Louisville  soon  became  a  thriving  village.  Emi- 
grants to  the  Ohio  country,  whether  north  or  south  of  the  river, 

crossed  the  moun- 
tains in  covered 
wagons,  sleeping  in 
these  at  night  and 
cooking  their  food 
by  the  roadside. 
The  route  led  to 
Pittsburgh,  if  they 
were  from  New 
England  or  the 
middle  states,  and  to  Wheeling,  if  from  Maryland  or  Virginia. 
At  the  bank  of  the  Ohio  they  obtained  flatboats,  large  enough 
to  carry  wagons,  livestock,  and  household  stuff.  The  current 
of  the  river  carried  them  on  at  the  rate  of  four  or  five  miles 
an  hour.  When  the  place  was  reached  to  which  the  settlers 
were  going,  they  used  the  planks  of  the  boat  for  buildings. 

Distress  in  the  States.  —  One  reason  why  so  many  people 
moved  to  the  Ohio  country  was  the  distress  in  the  states. 
A  sudden  change  from  war  to  peace  is  often  as  ruinous  to 
business  as  a  change  from  peace  to  war.  Industries  which 
profited  by  the  war  lost  the  market  for  their  goods.  Chan- 
nels of  trade  which  the  war  opened  were  closed.  Even  rich 
men  could  not  obtain  money  enough  to  pay  their  ordinary 
debts.  In  1788  Washington  had  to  put  off  the  tax  collector 
because  a  man  who  owed  him  could  not  pay.  Common 
debtors  came  to  look  upon  judges  as  their  enemies,  since  it 
was  the  decisions  of  judges  which  compelled  them  to  pay  or 
go  to  jail.  In  certain  Massachusetts  towns  mobs  hindered 
meetings  of  the  courts.  Finally  the  discontented,  including 
many  debtors  from  the  western  part  of  the  state,  assembled 
under  the  leadership  of  Captain  Daniel  Shays  and  attempted 


TROUBLE   FROM   DEBTS  235 

to  capture  the  arsenal  at  Springfield.  The  rioters  were  soon 
dispersed.  The  Rhode  Island  legislature  tried  to  help 
debtors  by  issuing  great  quantities  of  paper  money  and  com- 
pelling creditors  to  accept  the  worthless  bills.  It  also  threat- 
ened storekeepers  with  loss  of  political  rights  if  they  did  not 
sell  their  goods  at  low  prices  fixed  in  paper  money. 

Trade  after  the  War.  —  The  merchants  and  ship  owners, 
who  had  been  growing  rich  on  the  trade  with  France  and  Spain 
during  the  later  years  of  the  war,  were  distressed  to  discover 
that  at  its  close  they  could  no  longer  trade  with  the  French 
or  Spanish  West  Indies.  The  British  West  Indies  were  also 
closed,  because  the  Americans  were  now  foreigners.  The 
French  in  the  commercial  treaty  of  1778  had  promised  the 
Americans  only  as  good  treatment  as  that  granted  to  any 
other  foreigners.  While  the  war  lasted  the  French  govern- 
ment gave  special  privileges  to  American  ships  in  order  to 
injure  the  Enghsh,  but  withdrew  these  privileges  in  1783. 
Fortunately  for  the  American  merchants  the  French  planters 
cried  out  that  they  were  the  ones  principally  hurt,  for  they 
could  no  longer  get  cheap  food  for  their  plantation  hands.  By 
1785,  therefore,  the  French  government  reopened  the  trade 
in  a  few  products.  The  English  planters  obtained  similar 
privileges  of  trade  with  the  United  States,  so  that  by  1786 
the  West  Indian  trade  was  again  on  the  road  to  prosperity. 

The  stopping  of  the  West  Indian  trade  for  two  or  three  years 
made  it  hard  for  the  American  merchants  to  pay  for  what 
they  bought  in  Europe  and  especially  in  England.  They  had 
few  products  except  tobacco  and  rice  which  they  could  offer 
in  exchange.  The  English  government  added  to  the  diffi- 
culty by  insisting  that  ships  could  bring  no  goods  except  those 
of  the  state  where  the  ship  was  owned.  A  New  Englander, 
therefore,  could  not  carry  South  Carolina  rice  or  Virginia 
tobacco  to  England.  The  aim,  of  course,  was  to  give  this 
business  to  Enghsh  ships. 


236        DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  NEW  REPUBLIC 

Congress  and  Trade.  —  Another  difficulty  grew  out  of  the 
fact  that  Congress  did  not  have  the  right  to  make  rules  of 
trade  for  all  the  states.  Each  state  had  its  own  set  of  laws 
and  levied  such  taxes  as  it  pleased  on  articles  which  its  mer- 
chants bought.  States  sometimes  tried  to  take  vengeance 
on  England  because  the  English  government  treated  American 
merchants  badly.  States  also  taxed  articles  brought  in  from 
other  states.  New  Jersey  was  so  angry  at  the  taxes  New 
York  levied  on  articles  sent  to  New  York  that  the  state  tried 
to  levy  a  tax  of  £30  a  month  on  a  little  land  at  Sandy  Hook 
which  the  New  Yorkers  had  bought  for  a  light-house. 

The  Mississippi  Question.  —  Still  greater  dangers  arose 
over  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  The  lower  part  of  the 
river  for  200  miles  flowed  through  Spanish  territory.  The 
Americans,  like  the  EngHsh  from  1763  to  the  Revolution- 
ary War,  claimed  the  right  to  sail  down  the  Mississippi  and 
out  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  without  interference  from  the 
Spaniards.  But  the  Spaniards  disputed  the  claim.  They 
wanted  to  check  the  growth  of  the  western  settlements.  One 
way  to  accomplish  this  was  by  cutting  off  the  only  outlet  for 
trade.  They  therefore  offered  valuable  privileges  of  trade 
with  Spain  and  the  Spanish  West  Indies,  if  the  United  States 
would  give  up  the  claim  to  the  use  of  the  lower  Mississippi. 
Some  men  in  Congress  were  ready  to  obtain  trade  privileges 
at  this  price.  When  the  settlers  in  Kentucky  and  on  the  Ten- 
nessee heard  of  it,  they  threatened  to  secede  if  it  were  done. 

Need  of  a  Stronger  Union.  —  It  had  already  become  clear 
that  the  states  needed  a  stronger  government  if  they  were 
to  deal  successfully  with  foreign  nations.  By  1787  even  so 
friendly  a  government  as  France  thought  the  repubHc  was 
falling  to  pieces.  The  British  would  not  withdraw  their 
garrisons  from  the  northern  frontier  posts.  ^ 

^  British  garrisons  still  held  Detroit,  Mackinac,  Erie,  Niagara,  and  Oswego, 
though  these  posts  now  belonged  to  the  United  States. 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES  237 

Congress  was  unable  to  collect  money  enough  to  pay  the 
ordinary  expenses  of  the  government.  It  was  obliged  to  ask 
the  states  to  send  money  for  such  purposes.  In  1782  and 
1783  Congress  asked  for  $10,000,000,  but  received  less  than 
$1,500,000.  Delaware,  Georgia,  and  North  CaroHna  paid  noth- 
ing, while  New  Hampshire  paid  $3,000  instead  of  $450,000. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  United  States  in  1783.     What  neighbors  had  it? 

2.  Why  did  the  Spanish  colonies  grow  slowly?  Who  made  up  the  inhab- 
itants of  these? 

3.  Upon  what  new  race  were  the  English  and  Spanish  people  starting  as 
rivals  ?     Why  was  the  outcome  of  the  race  a  long  way  off? 

4.  Why  was  there  danger  that  the  new  republic  would  break  up?  Why 
did  the  people  of  the  United  States  know  so  little  of  one  another? 

5.  What  did  Congress  accomplish?  What  kind  of  money  was  used?  De- 
scribe the  system  of  money  adopted, 

6.  What  arrangement  did  Congress  and  the  states  make  regarding  the  west- 
em  land  claims?  What  plan  did  Congress  adopt  for  the  survey  of  these  lands? 
What  plan  for  the  government  of  the  Northwest  Territory? 

7.  What  western  settlements  were  formed?  How  did  the  emigrants  reach 
the  western  colonies?     Why  did  people  leave  the  old  settlements  for  the  West? 

8.  How  did  the  coming  of  peace  after  the  Revolution  affect  the  trade  of  the 
colonies?     How  did  the  people  finally  secure  a  profitable  foreign  trade? 

9.  Why  was  a  stronger  union  needed? 

EXERCISES 

1.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  present  United  States  show  the  parts  (i) 
which  were  already  inhabited  in  1783,  (2)  those  which  belonged  to  the  United 
States,  but  were  vacant,  and  (3)  those  held  by  foreign  colonies. 

2.  Make  two  lists,  one  of  the  good  things  that  the  Congress  of  the  Con- 
federation accomplished  between  1781  and  1789,  and  another  of  the  things  that 
it  should  have  done  but  could  not  for  want  of  power. 

3.  Describe  the  present  English  money  system.  Would  it  have  been  better 
if  the  United  States  had  kept  the  money  system  of  the  mother  country? 

4.  Review  the  story  of  the  Virginia  Company's  colony  at  Jamestown  and 
compare  it  with  that  of  the  Ohio  Company's  colony  at  Marietta. 

Important  Date: 

1787.   The  adoption  of  the  Northwest  Ordinance. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

STARTING  THE   NEW   GOVERNMENT 

The  Philadelphia  Convention.  —  Disputes  about  trade, 
especially  in  Chesapeake  Bay  and  along  the  Potomac  River, 
finally  convinced  thoughtful  men  that  a  government  strong 
enough  to  regulate  all  such  matters  was  necessary.  At- 
tempts to  settle  by  conference  questions  of  trade  between 
neighboring  states  like  Virginia  and  Maryland  came  to 
nothing.  A  convention  of  delegates  from  all  the  states  was 
then  called.     It  met  in  Philadelphia  in  May,  1787. 

James  Madison,  one  of  the  youngest  men  at  the  conven- 
tion, had  carefully  prepared  himself  beforehand  to  take  a 
leading  part  in  its  work.  He  had  so  much  to  do  with  making 
the  new  government  that  he  is  often  called  the  ''Father  of 
the  Constitution."  Many  other  notable  men  attended  the 
Philadelphia  convention.  Among  them  were  George  Wash- 
ington of  Virginia,  Benjamin  Franklin  and  James  Wilson  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  Alexander  Hamilton  of  New*  York.  Some 
great  leaders  of  the  day  were  occupied  with  other  work  and 
could  not  take  part  in  the  convention.  John  Jay  had 
charge  of  foreign  affairs  and  chose  to  stay  at  his  post.  John 
Adams  was  minister  of  the  United  States  to  England,  Thomas 
Jefferson  to  France.  Several  well-known  men,  like  Samuel 
Adams  and  Patrick  Henry,  were  opposed  to  such  a  change  in 
the  government,  and  were  not  in  the  convention. 

Washington  was  chosen  president  of  the  convention.  The 
leaders  made  no  attempt  to  patch  the  weak  spots  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Confederation.    From  the  beginning  they  were 


A  NEW  CONSTITUTION 


239 


resolved  to  propose  to  the  people  a  form  of  government  alto- 
gether new.  One  obstacle  to  success  was  the  fact  that  no  two 
of  the  thirteen  states  were  of  the  same  size,  and  yet  each 
believed  itself  as  important  as  any  of  the  rest.  The  small 
states  were  afraid  to  be  yoked 
with  the  large  states,  for  fear 
the  latter  would  outvote  and 
oppress  them.  A  thousand 
imaginary  dangers  troubled 
the  minds  of  the  timid.  At 
one  time  the  Delaware  dele- 
gates threatened  to  leave  the 
convention.  A  majority  of 
the  New  York  delegates  did 
leave  in  disgust  at  the  deci- 
sions which  the  convention 
made. 


James  Madison 


A  New  Constitution.  —  The  frame  of  government  which 
the  delegates  completed,  after  working  from  May  until  well 
into  September,  differed  widely  from  that  which  the  states 
had  accepted  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  In  the  first 
place,  an  official  called  a  President  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  administration  of  affairs.  Secondly,  the  legislature, 
or  Congress,  was  divided  into  a  Senate  and  a  House  of 
Representatives.  In  the  third  place,  a  Supreme  Court  was 
provided.  The  powers  granted  to  each  of  these  branches  of 
the  government  showed  that  the  leaders  of  the  convention 
wanted  to  guard  against  hasty  decisions.  For  this  reason 
they  made  the  assent  of  two  bodies  necessary  in  drawing  up 
laws.  They  also  gave  the  President  the  right  to  veto  acts  of 
Congress,  which  could  not  then  become  laws  unless  both 
Houses  passed  them  again  by  a  majority  of  two-thirds. 
Furthermore,  they  wished  to  protect  the  people  against  the 
possibility  that  in  times  of  excitement  both  President  and 


240  STARTING  THE  NEW  GOVERNMENT 

Congress  might  adopt  measures  which  would  deprive  a  part 
of  the  people  of  their  rights,  especially  of  their  rights  of 
property.  They  had  in  mind  such  laws  as  had  been  passed 
in  Rhode  Island  about  paper  money.  This  fear  led  the  con- 
vention to  give  to  a  Supreme  Court  the  power  to  guard  these 
rights  by  declaring  unconstitutional  acts  of  Congress  which 
violated  them. 

An  equally  great  change  was  made  in  the  powers  of  the  cen- 
tral government.  To  it  were  granted  not  only  the  right  to  levy 
taxes  enough  to  pay  its  expenses,  but  to  regulate,  without  in- 
terference from  the  state  legislatures,  such  matters  as  trade. 
Moreover,  the  states  were  forbidden  to  issue  paper  money. 

The  delegates  thought  it  better  to  give  the  choice  of  a  Pres- 
ident to  a  selected  body  of  men,  called  an  Electoral  College, 
rather  than  provide  that  the  President  should  be  chosen 
directly  by  the  people.  They  also  decided  that  senators 
should  be  chosen  by  the  legislatures  of  the  states.  Members 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  were  the  only  officers  to  be 
chosen  directly  by  the  people. 

The  Compromises  of  the  Constitution.  —  It  was  very  diffi- 
cult to  come  to  an  agreement  about  the  manner  of  making 
up  the  two  Houses  of  Congress.  Men  from  the  larger  states 
like  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia,  thought  that 
their  states  should  have  more  representatives  than  small  states. 
But  the  small  states  did  not  wish  to  be  ruled  by  their  larger 
neighbors.  A  New  Jersey  delegate  said  that  he  would  not 
submit  the  welfare  of  his  state  with  five  votes  to  a  Congress 
in  which  Virginia  had  sixteen.  Wilson  of  Pennsylvania  just 
as  emphatically  called  it  absurd  to  give  New  Jersey  with  a 
population  of  175,000  as  many  votes  as  Pennsylvania,  which 
had  more  than  twice  as  many  people,  or  Delaware  with  less 
than  60,000  as  many  as  Virginia,  which  had  a  population 
ten  times  as  great.  Nearly  five  weeks  passed  before  they 
settled  the  question. 


THE  CONSTITUTION  ADOPTED 


241 


Franklin  showed  them  a  way  out.  ''When,"  he  said,  "a 
broad  table  is  to  be  made,  and  the  edges  of  the  planks  do  not 
fit,  the  artist  takes  a  little  from  both,  and  makes  a  good  joint. 
In  like  manner  here  both  sides  must  part  with  some  of  their 
demands."  According  to  the  plan  finally  adopted  each  state, 
large  or  small,  should  have  two  senators,  while  its  number 
of  representatives 
depended  upon 
the  size  of  its  pop- 
ulation. Massa- 
chusetts, for  ex- 
ample, was  grant- 
ed eight  members 
in  the  House  of 
Represent  atives , 
Virginia  ten,  Del- 
aware one,  and 
Maryland  six. 

Many  similar 
bargains  were 
made  in  the 
course  of  the  de- 
bates. There  was, 
as  one  writer  says, 
a  ''whole  bundle" 
the  Constitution. 


Congress  Hall,  Philadelphia 
National  Capitol  in  1 790-1800 


of  compromises  agreed  to  while  making 
Frankhn  wanted  to  have  a  Congress  of 
one  House  and  to  fix  the  term  of  President  at  seven  years, 
denying  him  a  second  term.  These  proposals  and  many 
others  were  voted  down. 

The  States  accept  the  Work  of  the  Convention.  —  The 
people  of  the  states  accepted  the  work  of  the  convention, 
though  not  without  weeks  of  discussion  and  opposition. 
Most  of  the  small  states  thought  the  Constitution  favorable 
to  their  interests.     Delaware,  New  Jersey,  and  Georgia  rati- 


242  STARTING  THE  NEW  GOVERNMENT 

fied  it  with  enthusiasm.  Ratification  came  only  after  a  long, 
hard  fight  in  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  and  New  York.  Rhode 
Island  and  North  Carolina  at  first  refused  to  join  the  other 
states.  Eleven  states  accepted  the  new  Constitution,  and 
went  to  work  ''to  form  a  more  perfect  union."  ^ 

George  Washington,  First  President,  1789-97.  —  The 
Congress  of  the  Confederation  appointed  March  4,  1789,  for 
beginning  the  new  government,  and  New  York  as  the  tem- 
porary capital.  Electors,  chosen  in  five  2  of  the  states  by  the 
legislatures,  and  in  the  others  by  the  people,  voted  unani- 
mously for  Washington  as  the  first  President.  They  chose 
John  Adams  as  Vice-President.  It  was  long  after  March  4 
before  Congress  was  organized  and  Washington  was  officially 
notified  of  his  election.  On  April  30  he  took  the  oath  of 
office  and  read  his  inaugural  address  to  the  two  Houses  of 
Congress  assembled  in  Federal  Hall.  It  was  a  day  of  great 
rejoicing.  In  the  morning  crowds  attended  services  in  the 
churches  to  pray  for  the  welfare  of  the  new  government  and 
the  safety  of  the  President.  Bonfires  and  illuminations  at 
night  ended  the  celebration. 

Washington's  Helpers.  —  Washington's  first  task  was  to 
select  his  advisers.  Congress  provided  for  a  Secretary  of 
State  to  conduct  foreign  correspondence,  a  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  to  manage  money  matters,  and  a  Secretary  of  War 
to  direct  the  army  of  only  600  men.  The  offices  of  Attorney- 
General  to  advise  the  President  on  matters  of  law  and  Post- 
master-General to  care  for  the  small  postal  business  of  the 
country  were  created.  Neither  of  these  was  looked  upon 
as  an  important  department  like  the  other  three.  Washington 
appointed  Thomas  Jefferson  Secretary  of  State,  Alexander 

1  The  provision  in  the  Constitution  that  it  should  go  into  effect  as  soon  as 
nine  states  agreed  to  it  was  revolutionary,  because  according  to  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  any  change  in  the  government  required  the  consent  of  all  the 
states. 

2  Rhode  Island,  North  Carolina,  and  New  York  did  not  choose  electors. 


WASHINGTON  THE  FIRST  PRESIDENT 


243 


Hamilton  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  Henry  Knox  Secre- 
tary of  War.  John  Jay  was  made  Chief- Justice  of  the  new 
Supreme  Court. 

Formation  of  the  Cabinet.  —  Each  secretary  had  his  own 
work  to  do.  In  England  such 
officers  together  formed  a  ''Cab- 
inet" or  special  body  of  advisers 
to  the  king,  recommending  meas- 
ures of  government  and  conduct- 
ing discussions  in  parliament. 
The  American  Constitution  said 
nothing  about  a  Cabinet.  Wash- 
ington early  adopted  a  part  of 
the  EngHsh  practice  and  asked 
the  heads  of  departments  to 
meet  together  and  to  advise 
with  him  upon  important  mat- 
ters. The  custom  of  holding 
Cabinet  meetings  with  the  President  has  been  continued  by 
Washington's  successors.  In  this  way,  without  a  provision 
in  the  law  or  the  Constitution,  the  President's  Cabinet 
came  into   existence.^ 

Providing  Money  for  National  Affairs.  —  The  most  impor- 
tant matter  at  the  outset  was  providing  money  to  pay  the 
national  debt  and  the  ordinary  expenses  of  government.  It 
had  been  necessary  to  borrow  money  in  Holland  to  pay  the 
interest  on  the  French  loans.  Adams  had  also  been  obliged 
to  borrow  money  there  to  start  the  new  government.  Con- 
gress began  raising  money  almost  at  once  by  taxing  articles 
imported  into  the  United  States  from  other  countries.  Such 
taxes,  called  tariffs  or  import  duties,  remained  the  chief 
source  of  income  for  the  federal  government.     Duties  were 


George  Washington 
After  the  portrait  by  Stuart 


1  Four  men  made  up  Washington's  Cabinet  —  the  three  secretaries  —  State, 
Treasury,  and  War  —  and  the  Attorney-General. 


244  STARTING  THE  NEW  GOVERNMENT 

raised  or  lowered  as  more  or  less  money  was  needed.  From 
the  first,  manufacturers  urged  Congress  to  lay  import  duties 
on  articles  which  were  also  made  in  the  United  States.  This 
would  give  the  American  makers  an  advantage  or  "protec- 
tion," as  it  was  called.  The  duties  in  the  first  tariff  act 
were  low,  that  is,  only  sHghtly  protective. 

The  National  and  State  Debts.  —  Alexander  Hamilton, 
as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  was  called  upon  to  prepare  a 
plan  for  paying  off  the  great  war  debt.  He  proposed  that 
Congress  should  pay  not  only  the  money  borrowed  by  the 
government  from  the  French,  the  Dutch,  and  from  Ameri- 
can citizens,  but  even  that  borrowed  by  the  states  in  their 
own  defense.  This  meant  that  the  United  States  would  pay 
about  $75,000,000,  a  huge  sum  for  those  days. 

There  was  not  much  difference  of  opinion  about  paying 
back  the  money  which  the  United  States  had  borrowed,  but 
many  objected  to  paying  the  debts  of  the  states.  Some 
states  like  Virginia  had  already  paid  a  part  of  their  debt. 
They  objected  to  a  plan  by  which  their  citizens  would  have 
to  aid  other  states.  Besides,  some  men  preferred  that  the 
states,  rather  than  the  United  States,  should  receive  the  credit 
which  would  come  from  honorable  payment  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary debts. 

Another  Compromise.  —  It  happened  that  Congress  had 
to  select  a  place  for  a  permanent  capital.  The  members  of 
Congress  from  the  southern  states-  wanted  this  to  be  located 
on  the  Potomac.  The  members  from  Pennsylvania  wanted 
it  at  Philadelphia.  Other  members  of  Congress  did  not  care 
where  the  capital  should  be  located,  but  were  anxious  to  carry 
through  Hamilton's  plan  of  paying  the  state  debts.  Hamilton 
and  Jefferson,  representing  different  sides,  struck  a  bargain. 
Hamilton  agreed  to  persuade  several  northern  Congressmen 
to  vote  to  locate  the  capital  for  ten  years  at  Philadelphia  and 
then  permanently  on  the  Potomac  River;   Jefferson,  in  turn, 


TAXES  AND   REVENUE 


245 


promised  to  find  several  southern  members  to  support  Hamil- 
ton's plan  about  state  debts.    The  bargain  was  carried  out. 

Internal  Revenue  Taxes.  —  Hamilton  persuaded  Congress 
to  tax  whiskey  manufactured  in  the  United  States.     This 
was  called  an  internal  revenue  or  excise  tax.     The  govern- 
ment needed    the    money,    and 
Hamilton  thought  it  well  to  ac- 
custom the  people  to   the  idea 
of   taxes    collected ".  in    different 
parts  of  the  country.       He  be- 
Heved  that  a  government,   Hke 
a  man,  grows  strong  by  exercis- 
ing every  power. 

The  levy  of  this  tax  soon  gave 
the  government  an  opportunity 
to  show  whether  it  was  strong. 
Many  persons  in  western  Penn- 
sylvania owned  small  distilleries 
and  made  whiskey  out  of  their 

surplus  rye,  corn,  and  wheat.  When  the  Spaniards  closed 
the  Mississippi,  the  western  settlers  could  no  longer  send 
their  grain  to  market  by  water.  It  could  be  sent  across  the 
mountains  only  at  great  expense  unless  distilled  into  whis- 
key. They  were  angry  at  the  law  placing  a  tax  on  their 
chief  product  and  drove  away  the  collectors.  When  the 
governor  of  Pennsylvania  would  not  put  down  the  disorder, 
Washington  sent  to  the  seat  of  trouble  an  army  made  up  of 
militia  from  the  neighboring  states.  The  ''Whiskey  Rebel- 
lion" ended  without  actual  fighting,  and  resistance  to  the 
collectors  ceased. 

A  Mint  and  a  National  Bank.  —  By  Hamilton's  advice  a 
mint  was  estabUshed,  and  the  coinage  of  silver  and  gold 
begun.  His  plan  to  create  a  Bank  of  the  United  States  met 
with  more  opposition.     England  had  had  such  a  bank  for  a 


Alexander  Hamilton 


246 


STARTING  THE  NEW  GOVERNMENT 


:^n«^^^K- 


century.  It  had  been  of  great  use  in  several  ways,  but 
chiefly  in  helping  the  government  when  it  needed  to 
borrow  large  amounts  of  money.  In  Holland  the  Bank 
of  Amsterdam  had  been  equally  useful.  When  Hamilton 
proposed    a    similar    bank    for    the    United   States,    many 

opposed  the  scheme 
for  fear  that  it 
would  be  so  power- 
ful that  it  would 
control  all  business. 
Congress,  however, 
finally  authorized 
the  Bank,  to  do 
business  for  twenty 
j-ears,  and  subscrib- 
ed one-fifth  of  the 
money  that  was 
required  for  its  or- 
ganization. 

Rival  Leaders  in  Washington's  Cabinet.  —  In  carrying  out 
Hamilton's  plans  Congress  made  use  of  powers  not  given 
to  it  expressly  in  the  Constitution.  Hamilton  argued  that 
Congress  should  provide  for  the  general  welfare  of  the  coun- 
try. Jefferson  opposed  Hamilton's  plans  in  the  Cabinet 
meetings  and  outside.  Washington  sympathized  rather  more 
with  Hamilton,  but  preferred  not  to  take  sides  with  either. 
The  fact  was  that  the  two  great  leaders  held  very  different 
views  of  government.  Hamilton  was  bent  on  securing  a 
strong  government  which  could  maintain  order  at  all  times. 
He  distrusted  the  ability  of  the  masses  of  the  people  to  take 
an  intelligent  part  in  government,  and  accordingly  believed 
that  the  government  should  be  carried  on  by  men  of  prop- 
erty and  education.  Jefferson,  on  the  other  hand,  sincerely 
believing  that  all  men  are  equal,  was  determined  that  the  few 


The  Bank  of  the  United  States, 
Philadelphia 


THE  NORTHWEST  TERRITORY 


247 


should  not  rule  the  many.  He  thought  that  all  the  people 
would  in  the  end  prove  wiser  than  any  part  of  them, 
however  well-meaning  and  intelligent.  Under  the  influence 
of  Jefferson  and  Hamilton  the  citizens  of  the  new  repubhc 
were  soon  grouped  in  two  pohtical  parties.  Hamilton's 
followers  were  com- 
monly called  Fed- 
eralists, because  of 
their  belief  in  a 
strong  federal  or 
national  govern- 
ment. The  Jeffer- 
sonians  were  called 
Democrats  or  Re- 
publicans because 
of  their  faith  in  the 
people.  The  Dem- 
ocrats naturally 
looked  to  the  states 
rather  than  the  Un- 
ited States  as  the 
governments  which 
must  be  rehed  upon.  They  were  sure  that  Hamilton 
aimed  at  changing  the  government  into  a  monarchy,  and 
even  went  so  far  as  to  attack  Washington  bitterly  for 
leaning  toward  Hamilton's  ideas  on  government. 

The  New  Government  and  the  Ohio  Country.  —  The 
advantages  of  a  strong  government,  such  as  Washington  and 
his  advisers  were  organizing,  soon  became  apparent  in  another 
way.  Hardly  had  Marietta  been  founded  before  a  new 
Indian  war  broke  out,  in  which  the  governor  of  the  North- 
west Territory  was  badly  defeated.  The  new  government 
raised  another  and  better  army  and  suppHed  it  with  neces- 
sary war  supplies.     Washington  gave  the  command  to  Gen- 


The  Northwest  Territory  after  Wayne's 
Victory 

The  part  given  up  by  the  Indians  is  shaded;  that  kept 
by  the  Indians  is  white 


248 


STARTING  THE  NEW  GOVERNMENT 


eral  Anthony  Wayne,  whom  his  soldiers  liked  to  call  ''Mad 
Anthony"  for  his  bravery,  but  whom  the  Indians  called  the 
''chief  that  never  sleeps"  for  his  ceaseless  energy.  Wayne 
defeated  the  Indians  decisively  and  compelled  them  to  give 
up  nearly  all  of  what  is  now  the  state  of  Ohio.  After  this 
it  was  not  so  dangerous  to  emigrate  to  the  West,  and  the 
number  of  settlers  increased  rapidly. 


.  .\\A'W//^/' 


Exterior  Interior 

A  Pioneer  Home  in  Kentucky 

By  1800  four  hundred  thousand  people  lived  west  of  the 
mountains.  So  many  lived  in  Kentucky  that  in  1792  it 
was  admitted  to  the  union  of  states  on  the  same  terms  as  the 
original  thirteen.  Four  years  later,  in  1796,  Tennessee  was 
made  the  sixteenth  state.  ^  Ohio  was  added  in  1803,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  Northwest  Territory  was  soon  divided  into 
Indiana,  Michigan,  and  IlKnois  Territories. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  disputes  finally  convinced  men  that  a  stronger  government  was 
needed?     Who  were  the  leaders  in  calling  the  convention  at  Philadelphia? 

2.  What  great  obstacle  was  there  to  the  success  of  the  convention?  How 
long  did  the  delegates  work  in  framing  the  new  government? 

3.  What  three  branches  of  government  did  the  new  Constitution  provide? 
Why  did  the  leaders  arrange  the  powers  of  these  branches  as  they  did?  What 
new  powers,  not  possessed  by  Congress  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation, 
were  now  given  to  the  central  government? 

1  Vermont,  the  fourteenth  state,  had  been  admitted  in  1791. 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES  249 

4.  Why  did  the  delegates  not  give  the  choice  of  President  and  senators  to 
the  people  directly?  What  officials  did  they  allow  the  people  to  choose?  What 
compromise  was  made  in  order  to  adjust  the  chief  difference  between  the  large 
and  small  states? 

5.  How  many  states  accepted  the  work  of  the  convention?  What  states 
refused  at  first  to  accept? 

6.  When  was  the  new  government  organized?  Who  became  the  President 
and  Vice-President?  Whom  did  Washington  choose  as  his  advisers?  Where 
did  Washington  get  the  idea  of  a  Cabinet? 

7.  How  did  Congress,  under  the  advice  of  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, provide  for  tne  expenses  of  government?  Why  did  Hamilton  wish  the 
United  States  to  pay  the  state  debts  as  well  as  the  general  debts?  Why  did 
many  citizens  oppose  this  part  of  his  plan?  •  What  compromise  was  adopted  in 
Congress  to  settle  tne  difference  of  opinion  over  state  debts  and  the  capital? 

8.  Why  did  Hamilton  want  Congress  to  create  a  Bank  of  the  United 
States?  Where  had  the  plan  worked  well?  What  objections  were  made? 
Was  Hamilton  successful  in  this  part  of  his  scheme  for  the  organization  of 
the  new  government? 

9.  What  views  did  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  hold  regarding  government? 
What  party  names  did  their  followers  take? 

10.  In  what  way  was  the  new  and  stronger  government  beneficial  to  the 
western  settlers?    What  new  states  were  added  to  the  Union? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Review  in  Chapter  XX  the  reasons  for  abandoning  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation for  an  entirely  new  frame  of  government. 

2.  Make  a  table  showing  the  area  and  population  of  the  thirteen  states 
and  group  them  as  large  and  small  states  with  regard  to  population,  (See 
Appendix,  page  x.) 

3.  Are  senators  and  the  President  still  elected  in  the  manner  originally 
provided  in  the  Constitution? 

4.  What  heads  of  departments  now  form  the  President's  Cabinet? 

Important  Dates: 

1787.   The  Constitutional  Convention  meets  in  Philadelphia. 
1789.   The  new  Constitution  goes  into  effect,  and  Washington  becomes 
President. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE   UNITED    STATES   AND   EUROPE 

Two  New  Revolutions.  —  While  the  people  of  the  United 
States  were  busy  completing  the  new  framework  of  govern- 
ment, two  revolutions  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  began 
to  influence  them  deeply.  The  first,  in  England,  called  the 
Industrial  Revolution,  introduced  new  and  quicker  ways  of 
making  cloth,  iron,  steel,  and  many  other  things.  The 
Americans  naturally  were  eager  to  learn  the  new  methods  in 
order  to  succeed  in  manufacturing.  The  second  revolution 
was  in  France,  and  seemed  to  be  a  struggle  for  the  kind  of 
liberty  and  equahty  which  the  Americans  already  enjoyed. 
It  therefore  appealed  strongly  to  their  sympathies.  But 
when  it  led  to  a  terrible  war,  in  which  France  was  arrayed 
against  England  and  Europe,  American  sympathies  were 
divided.  This  was  especially  true  after  the  French  as  well 
as  the  English  began  to  interfere  with  American  trade. 

Spinning  and  Weaving.  —  The  first  change  made  in  Eng- 
land was  in  the  method  of  preparing  cotton  or  woolen  yarn 
and  of  weaving  it  into  cloth.  The  story  is  told  that  James 
Hargreaves,  an  English  weaver,  entered  his  house  one  day 
so  suddenly  that  his  wife,  startled,  upset  her  spinning-wheel. 
Hargreaves  noticed  that  the  wheel  kept  on  turning  as  it  lay 
on  the  floor,  and  he  wondered  why  he  could  not  construct  a 
wheel  in  such  a  manner  that  it  would  turn  several  spindles 
and  spin  several  threads  at  once.  He  succeeded  in  making 
a  machine  which  could  spin  eight  threads,  and  named  it  a 
"spinning  jenny"  in  honor  of  his  wife.     This  was  in  1764. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


251 


Hargreaves's  Spinning  Jenny 


Hargreaves  did  not  keep  his  secret  long,  and  soon  other 
machines  were  made,  spinning  20  and  30  threads.  The  most 
successful  maker  of  spinning  machines  was  Richard  Ark- 
wright,  who  after  1769  made  and  sold  great  numbers  of  them. 
The  good  points  of  both  kinds  of  machines  were  soon  com- 
bined in  a  ''mule  spinner," 
which  was  in  common  use 
by  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War. 

Before  these  spinning 
machines  were  invented, 
weavers  often  were  unable 
to  obtain  yarn  enough  to 
supply  their  looms.  Now 
yarn  was  spun  much  faster 
than  it  was  needed.     The 

balance  was  restored  by  the  power-loom,  another  great 
invention.  A  clergyman,  Edmund  Cartwright,  invented  a 
machine,  which  was  run  by  power,  for  weaving  the  yarn  into 
cloth.  This  soon  began  to  displace  the  hand-looms.  The 
power  was  furnished  at  first  by  horses  or  water-wheels. 

The  Steam-Engine.  —  About  the  same  time  James  Watt 
invented  the  steam-engine.  Men  had  dreamed  for  ages  of 
using  the  steam  which  escaped  from  a  boiHng  kettle  for 
driving  machinery.  Hero,  a  Greek  inventor  of  Alexandria  in 
Egypt,  more  than  one  hundred  years  before  Christ,  attached 
bent  pipes  to  a  boiler  so  that  escaping  steam  caused  the 
pipes  to  revolve  in  the  same  way  as  lawn  sprinklers  turn  by 
the  flow  of  water.  Watt  showed  how  to  introduce  the  steam 
first  at  one  end  of  a  cylinder  and  then  at  the  other,  so  as 
to  drive  a  piston  back  and  forth.  His  engine  was  able  to 
furnish  more  power  than  a  very  large  number  of  horses,  and 
could  be  used  where  water-wheels  could  not  be  set  up,  and 
could  take  the  place  of  the  water-wheels  when  the  rivers 


252 


THE  UNITED   STATES  AND   EUROPE 


were  low.  Watt  began  to  manufacture  his  engines  in  1781. 
Eight  years  later  Cartwright,  who  had  been  using  an  ox  to 
drive  his  power-loom,  adopted  one  of  Watt's  engines.  The 
introduction  of  the  steam-engine  made  it  necessary  for 
spinning  and  weaving  to  be  carried  on  in  places  where  coal 
for  fuel  was  easily  obtained. 

Factories.  —  These  inventions  led  to  the  building  of  mills 

or  factories.  Hitherto  spin- 
ning and  weaving  had  been 
household  industries.  Women 
had  often  done  the  spinning 
in  their  leisure  time.  In  some 
country  districts  whole  fami- 
lies had  spent  the  long  winter 
evenings  spinning  yarn  to  sell 
to  some  weaver  or  to  use 
in  the  family  loom.  The 
ordinary  family  or  skilled 
weaver  did  not  have  money  enough  to  buy  the  new 
machines,  nor  a  house  large  enough  to  hold  them.  There- 
fore, men  with  money  built  the  factories,  bought  the 
machines,  and  paid  spinners  and  weavers  to  run  them. 
Many  weavers  still  lived  at  home  and  tried  to  make 
cloth  in  the  old  way.  But  the  cost  of  making  cloth  with 
the  new  machinery  was  so  small  that  weavers  with  hand- 
looms  found  it  hard  to  earn  a  living.  Angry  at  the  loss  of 
their  business,  they  sometimes  rushed  into  the  factories  and 
broke  the  new  machines.  The  change  in  the  place  of  making 
cloth  from  the  household  to  the  factory  is  usually  described 
as  a  change  from  the  ''domestic"  to  the  "factory"  system. 

Coal,  Iron,  and  Steel.  —  Two  changes  in  the  manner  of 
making  iron  and  steel  were  equally  important.  The  older 
furnaces  had  used  charcoal,  and  as  the  supply  of  charcoal 
began  to  give  out,  the  English  makers  of  iron  and  steel  imple- 


Watt's  Steam-Exgine 


AMERICANS  AND  THE  NEW  INVENTIONS      253 

ments  imported  pig  iron  from  the  American  colonies  or  from 
northern  Europe.  In  1760  an  EngHshman  made  a  blast- 
furnace in  which  coal  could  be  used,  and  thirty  years  later 
manufacturers  began  to  use  steam-engines  to  cause  the  blast. 
The  result  was  a  growth  in  the  production  of  iron  and  steel 
as  rapid  as  the  growth  in  the  production  of  cloth  had  been. 
This  drew  many  workmen  from  the  villages  to  the  towns, 
especially  in  the  coal  regions  where  the  new  furnaces  were 
constructed. 

The  Americans  and  the  New  Inventions.  —  Americans  did 
not  wait  for  the  new  machine  methods  of  making  cloth  to  be 
fully  improved  before  they  began  to  use  them.  The  Enghsh 
government  realized  the  advantage  that  the  inventions  gave 
to  English  manufacturers  and  merchants,  and  forbade  either 
the  machines  or  plans  of  them  to  be  sent  out  of  the  country. 
Parliament  even  tried  to  prevent  the  emigration  of  those 
who  knew  how  to  work  with  the  new  inventions.  The 
Americans,  however,  found  ways  of  obtaining  the  needed 
information  and  constructed  the  machines  themselves. 

A  spinning  jenny  was  at  work  in  Philadelphia  in  the  year 
the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out,  eleven  years  after  Har- 
greaves  had  invented  it.  Three  years  after  the  close  of  the 
war  a  mill  for  spinning  cotton  yarn  was  built  at  Beverly,  Mas- 
sachusetts. Bounties  or  rewards  were  offered  for  the  intro- 
duction of  English  machinery.  Samuel  Slater,  a  workman  in 
one  of  Arkwright's  mills,  heard  of  the  bounty  and  emigrated 
to  America.  In  order  to  avoid  the  heavy  penalties  for  carry- 
ing away  models  or  plans  of  such  machinery,  he  was  obHged 
to  store  his  memory  with  a  knowledge  of  every  part  of  the 
machine.  At  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island,  in  1789,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  furnishing  a  mill  with  the  new  spinning  machinery. 
A  French  traveler  was  surprised  to  find  that  Arkwright's 
spinning  machines  were  not  only  well  known,  but  made  in 
the  United  States. 


254  THE  UNITED   STATES   AND  EUROPE 

At  Slater's  mill,  as  in  England,  women  and  even  boys  and 
girls  were  employed.  In  a  short  time  the  machinery 'was 
so  improved  that  one  worker  could  tend  300  spindles  and 
do  as  much  as  300  girls  with  the  old  spinning  wheels.  Others 
were  slow  to  imitate  Slater,  for  in  the  next  fifteen  years  only 
four  mills  were  built.  Most  of  the  spinning  and  all  of  the 
weaving  in  the  United  States  was  still  done  at  home  on  the 
spinning-wheels  and  hand-looms. 

Whitney's  Cotton-Gin.  —  The  new  way  of  making  cotton 
yarn  greatly  increased  the  demand  for  raw  cotton.  People 
in  Georgia  began  to  raise  more.  In  1786  the  Georgians  intro- 
duced "sea-island"  or  long-hber  cotton,  which  hitherto  had 
been  brought  from  South  America  or  the  West  Indies. 
Short-fiber  cotton  was  raised  on  the  uplands  in  the  interior. 
From  1789  to  1791  the  production  doubled.  The  great 
obstacle  to  success  in  the  cotton  trade  was  the  difficulty 
with  which  the  seed  was  separated  from  the  fiber.  A  slave 
could  clean  only  five  or  six  pounds  a  day.  EH  Whitney,  a 
graduate  of  Yale  College,  who  became  a  teacher  in  Georgia, 
resolved  to  construct  a  machine  which  could  do  this  work 
faster.  He  succeeded  in  inventing  a  cotton-gin,  which  drew 
the  fibers  through  wires  by  means  of  cyhnders  covered  with 
teeth.  The  new  machine  run  by  horse-power  could  clean  300 
pounds  of  cotton  a  day.  The  production  of  cotton  which 
amounted  to  2,000,000  pounds  in  1791,  was  48,000,000 
pounds  ten  years  later. 

Cotton  and  Slavery.  —  Another  consequence  of  the  grow- 
ing importance  of  cotton  raising  was  a  change  of  feeling  in 
regard  to  slavery.  Soon  after  the  Revolution,  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey,  as  well  as  the  states  farther  north,  began  to 
free  their  slaves  and  to  forbid  slavery  within  their  borders. 
They  found  such  a  system  of  labor  unprofitable  where  farm- 
ing could  not  be  carried  on  by  the  methods  of  the  plantation. 
Several  of  the  southern  states  were  already  planning  similar 


COTTON  AND   SLAVERY 


255 


action.  But  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  and  the  demand 
of  the  factories  for  cotton  stopped  all  talk  of  this  in  the 
cotton-growing  states. 

The  French  Revolution.  —  All  these  changes  were  impor- 
tant, but  they  went  on  so  quietly  that  few  men  understood 
how  great  the  industrial  revolution  was.     Most  men's  atten- 


Improved  model  Whitney's  model 

COTTON-GlNS 

tion  was  attracted  by  another  kind  of  revolution  going  on  in 
France.  Ever  since  the  American  Revolution  Frenchmen  had 
eagerly  asked  one  another  how  they  too  might  have  more 
hberty.  One  of  their  great  writers  declared,  ''Man  is  born 
free,  and  is  everywhere  in  chains."  Those  who  beheved 
this  were  eager  to  break  the  chains  and  make  men  free  again. 
Louis  XVI,  the  French  king,  was  well-meaning,  but  he  did  not 
have  energy  enough  to  make  the  laws  fair  and  just  to  all. 

The  great  trouble  in  France  was  that  the  rich  and  the 
nobles  had  managed  to  lay  the  heaviest  burdens  upon  the 
shoulders  of  the  farmers.  Three-quarters  of  the  people  were 
peasant  farmers,  but  that  was  no  reason  why  they  should  pay 
nine-tenths  of  the  taxes.  The  poorer  townspeople  were  not 
much  better  off.  The  refusal  of  the  upper  classes  to  bear 
their  share  of  the  burdens  left  the  government  without  income 
enough  to  pay  its  expenses  and  its  debts.  The  aid  given  to 
the  United   States   had   added   about  $300,000,000   to   the 


256  THE  UNITED   STATES  AND   EUROPE 

French  national  debt.  When  the  government  could  do 
nothing  to  prevent  bankruptcy  a  States-General  or  Na- 
tional Assembly  was  called  together  to  prepare  ways  of 
avoiding  such  a  calamity.  This  body  met  in  May,  1789, 
five  days  after  Washington  was  inaugurated.  Lafayette 
was  one  of  the  members.  He  and  other  leaders  of  the 
assembly  resolved  that  France  also  should  have  a  consti- 
tution which  would  protect  the  rights  of  the  people  and 
which  would  distribute  the  burdens  of  the  country  more 
equally. 

Civil  War  in  France.  —  Many  of  the  nobles,  especially  the 
courtiers,  were  angry  to  see  their  privileges  destroyed.  Other 
men  thought  that  the  National  Assembly  made  many  changes 
which  wxre  wrong.  Within  two  years  France  was  divided 
into  two  parties,  one  for  and  the  other  against  the  Revolution. 
Its  supporters  called  themselves  patriots,  like  the  leaders  of 
the  Revolution  in  America  in  1775.  They  hated  their  oppo- 
nents just  as  the  American  patriots  hated  the  Tories  or 
loyalists. 

In  1792  civil  war  broke  out  in  France,  and  soon  afterward 
Louis  XVI  was  dethroned  and  executed  as  an  enemy  of  the 
Revolution.  By  this  time  the  earher  leaders,  like  Lafayette, 
had  lost  their  influence.  Lafayette  had  even  been  driven 
into  exile.  Quarrels  with  Austria  and  Prussia  had  also  led 
to  war.  The  execution  of  the  king  added  England,  Holland, 
and  Spain  to  the  Hst  of  enemies.  France  seemed  arrayed 
against  all  the  governments  of  Europe. 

The  United  States  and  France.  —  Many  Americans,  among 
them  prominent  Federalists,  now  concluded  that  France  had 
gone  too  far.  Others,  especially  the  followers  of  Jefferson, 
still  believed  that  the  French  were  fighting  in  the  cause  of 
liberty.  In  consequence  the  French  Revolution  increased 
party  strife  in  the  United  States. 

As  soon  as  war  broke  out  between  France  and  England,  the 


THE  UNITED   STATES  AND  FRANCE  257 

French  expected  the  Americans  to  take  their  side,  out  of 
gratitude  for  the  help  given  ten  years  before.  The  treaty  of 
1778  also  pledged  the  Americans  to  defend  the  French  West 
Indies.  It  seemed  doubtful  to  Washington  whether  the 
Americans  should  be  dragged  into  a  war  which  the  French 
had  brought  upon  themselves.  He  decided  to  hold  aloof 
and  to  act  in  a  manner  friendly  toward  all. 

In  April,  1793,  Genet,  a  new  French  minister,  landed  in  the 
United  States  and  tried  to  induce  American  privateersmen 
to  help  France  destroy  English  merchant  vessels  on  the  coast. 
Many  Americans  were  glad  to  see  blows  struck  at  England, 
and  criticized  Washington  severely  when  he  put  a  stop  to 
Genet's  attempts  to  draw  the  country  into  the  war  with 
England.  Fortunately  the  French  government  soon  sent 
over  another  minister. 

Disputes  about  Trade.  —  The  war  raised  other  more  serious 
difficulties.  The  ships  of  England  and  France  were  obliged 
to  charge  higher  prices  for  carrying  freight,  because  they  were 
in  constant  danger  of  loss  by  capture.  This  gave  a  great 
advantage  to  the  ship-owners  of  a  neutral  nation,  like  the 
United  States,  who  could  still  charge  the  ordinary  rates. 
Neither  England  nor  France  was  wilHng  to  see  American 
merchants  take  away  a  large  part  of  their  trade  on  the  sea. 
''If  our  trade  is  lost,"  they  argued,  ''where  shall  we  get 
money  to  pay  taxes,  and  without  taxes  we  cannot  support 
armies  and  navies,  and  may  as  well  confess  ourselves 
beaten." 

Of  course  neutrals  were  not  allowed  to  carry  either  to  Eng- 
land or  France  things  like  powder  which  could  be  used  in  war- 
fare. Why  should  not  the  trade  in  wheat  also  be  stopped, 
for  soldiers  must  have  bread  as  well  as  powder?  So  the 
EngUsh  thought,  and  they  captured  American  ships  loaded 
with  wheat  bound  for  France  or  the  French  colonies.  Eng- 
land also  objected  when  the  American  shipmasters  attempted 


258 


THE  UNITED   STATES  AND  EUROPE 


to  carry  sugar  and  coffee  from  the  French  West  Indies  to 
Europe.^ 

The  people  of  the  United  States  were  almost  ready  for  war 
with  Great  Britain  on  account  of  such  quarrels  over  trade. 
Their  anger  was  increased  when  British  naval  officers  seized 
Enghshmen  on  board  American  vessels  and  compelled  them 
to  serve  in  the  navy.  By  Englishmen  these  officers  meant 
any  one  born  in  England,  whether  he  had  been  naturalized 

in  the  United  States  or  not. 
They  held  the  old  notion  that, 
''Once  an  EngHshman  always  an 
Englishman."  Often  they  seized 
American-born  sailors,  claiming 
that  they  were  English. 

The  Jay  Treaty.  —  To  save 
the  country  from  war  Washing- 
ton sent  Chief- Justice  Jay  to 
England  to  settle  all  disputes 
between  the  two  countries,  in- 
cluding those  which  remained 
after  the  treaty  of  peace  in  1783. 
Jay  was  only  partly  successful.  The  English  agreed  to 
withdraw  their  garrisons  from  the  northern  frontier  posts. 
They  would  make  no  promises  about  impressment,  and  the 
arrangement  they  offered  concerning  the  trade  with  the 
West  Indies  was  so  ruinous  to  American  trade  that  it  was 

1  The  French  were  giving  the  American  ships  unusual  privileges  of  trade 
with  the  West  Indies,  because  their  own  ships  were  liable  to  capture,  and  the 
merchants  in  France  desired  to  obtain  the  coffee  and  sugar  raised  in  the 
colonies.  The  EngUsh,  however,  declared  that  the  Americans  could  not  take 
advantage  of  the  French  offers,  because  they  were  due  wholly  to  the  war,  and 
were  simply  methods  by  which  the  French  sought  to  save  their  planters  as 
well  as  many  of  their  merchants  from  ruin.  The  Americans  had  traded 
with  the  French  West  Indies  before  war  began  and,  therefore,  the  EngUsh 
had  no  right  to  stop  all  such  trade.  England  later  paid  damages  for  seizing 
during  the  quarrel  several  hundred  American  ships  trading  in  the  West  Indies. 


JOHN  ADAMS  ELECTED   PRESIDENT  259 

finally  omitted  from  the  treaty.  All  Washington's  influence 
was  required  to  persuade  the  Senate  to  ratify  the  treaty, 
even  with  that  article  left  out. 

The  Mississippi  Question.  —  In  1795  a  satisfactory  treaty 
was  signed  with  Spain,  making  it  possible  for  western  settlers 
to  float  their  products  down  the  Mississippi  and  store  them 
in  a  ''place  of  deposit"  at  New  Orleans,  so  that  they  might 
be  loaded  there  upon  sea-going  ships. 

The  French  and  Jay^s  Treaty.  —  When  the  French  heard 
of  Jay's  treaty  they  were  angry  and  declared  the  alhance  of 
1778  at  an  end.  They  also  threatened  to  treat  American 
vessels  trading  with  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  exactly 
as  the  United  States  permitted  the  British  to  treat  American 
vessels  trading  with  France  and  her  colonies.  The  partisans 
of  France  were  very  bitter  toward  Washington.  The  mer- 
chants were  reheved  when  the  danger  of  war  with  England 
was  gone,  but  the  great  mass  of  the  people  outside  the  coast 
towns  ardently  supported  the  French  and  hated  the  EngUsh. 

Change  of  Administration  in  the  United  States.  —  By 
1797  Washington  had  served  two  terms  as  President.  He 
decided  not  to  permit  his  name  to  go  before  the  electors  again. 
In  his  farewell  address  he  urged  his  fellow  countrymen  ''to 
steer  clear  of  permanent  alUances  with  any  portion  of  the 
foreign  world."  He  now  retired  to  Mount  Vernon,  where  he 
died  two  years  later. 

In  the  electoral  college  there  was  a  Hvely  struggle  over 
his  successor.  The  quarrel  over  Jay's  treaty  still  excited 
the  Jeffersonians  and  the  FederaKsts.  John  Adams,  Vice- 
President  since  1789,  was  the  FederaHst  candidate,  while  the 
RepubHcans  desired  Jefferson.  Adams  won  by  three  votes, 
and  Jefferson  became  Vice-President.^ 

^  The  Constitution  originally  provided  that  the  candidate  receiving  next 
to  the  highest  number  of  votes  in  the  electoral  college  should  be  Vice- 
President. 


26o  THE  UNITED   STATES  AND  EUROPE 

Troubles  with  France.  —  Adams  had  been  in  office  only 
a  few  months  when  the  country  was  on  the  point  of  declaring 
war  against  the  French.  The  government  of  France  was  now 
bankrupt.  Its  ordinary  expenses  were  paid  by  money  which 
victorious  generals  like  Napoleon  Bonaparte  sent  to  Paris 
from  conquered  lands.  When  Adams  sent  commissioners  to 
France  to  settle  the  difficulties  growing  out  of  the  European 
war,  the  officials  not  only  demanded  a  loan  of  millions  for 
the  government,  but  they  asked  for  $250,000  for  their  own 
pockets.  The  commissioners  replied  that  they  should  not 
have  a  sixpence.  The  news  of  this  insulting  treatment  filled 
most  Americans  with  indignation,  although  some  RepubHcans 
thought  insults  the  proper  way  of  treating  the  Adams 
administration. 

In  dealing  with  the  situation  Adams  and  his  supporters 
in  Congress  made  serious  blunders.  They  wisely  provided 
for  the  construction  of  several  war  ships  which  were  author- 
ized to  attack  French  ships.  But  they  also  passed  an  act 
empowering  the  President  to  expel  foreigners  in  time  of  war, 
meaning  Frenchmen,  and  another  act  punishing  as  a  crime 
criticisms  of  the  government  and  its  officials.  These  two 
measures,  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  were  denounced  by 
the  Republicans  as  attempts  to  set  up  a  tyrannical  govern- 
ment in  the  United  States.  The  legislatures  of  Virginia  and 
of  Kentucky  declared  them  contrary  to  the  Constitution,  the 
Kentucky  legislature  going  so  far  as  to  declare  them  nuR 
and  void  in  ''Resolutions"  written  by  Jefferson.  Before  the 
controversy  ended,  the  FederaHsts,  the  party  of  a  strong 
central  government,  became  unpopular.  There  was  little 
chance  that  Adams  would  be  re-elected  for  another  term. 

A  Treaty  with  France.  —  Fortunately  for  America,  the 
French  government  was  changed  in  1799  and  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  as  First  Consul,  became  its  head.  He  saw  no 
object  in  prolonging  the  quarrel  with  the  Americans,  and 


A  TREATY  WITH  FRANCE         261 

signed  a  treaty  ending  the  difficulties.  The  quarrel  had 
interfered  little  with  the  trade  of  American  merchants  in  the 
West  Indies.  They  were  busy  carrying  West  India  coffee 
and  sugar  to  Europe.  To  comply  with  the  Enghsh  rules  they 
must  first  bring  the  cargoes  to  the  United  States,  unload 
them,  and  pay  import  duties  as  if  they  were  to  be  sold  in  the 
United  States.  The  cargoes  could  then  be  put  on  the  same 
ships,  the  duties  paid  back,  and  the  ships  could  sail  for  Euro- 
pean ports  without  risk  of  capture.  Before  the  war  between 
England  and  France  the  United  States  exported  to  Europe 
only  about  one  million  pounds  of  sugar  and  two  milHon 
pounds  of  coffee  each  year.  Within  four  years  the  amount 
of  sugar  had  risen  to  35,000,000  pounds  and  of  coffee  to 
62,000,000  pounds.  It  seemed,  therefore,  that  the  misfor- 
tunes of  France  were  as  profitable  to  American  merchants  as- 
Enghsh  inventions  to  American  manufacturers.  Another  ten 
years  showed  that  the  losses  in  such  trade  might  be  greater 
than  the  gains. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  two  revolutions  in  Europe  deeply  influenced  the  United  States? 
Which  impressed  the  American  people  the  more?  Why  was  the  industrial 
revolution  very  important? 

2.  What  new  inventions  changed  the  method  of  manufacturing  in  England? 
How  did  these  machines  affect  the  work  of  the  house?  Why  did  the  hand 
weavers  lose  their  work? 

3.  What  two  changes  took  place  in  iron  and  steel  manufacture?  Where 
were  the  iron  workers  obliged  to  go? 

4.  Which  one  of  the  new  inventions  was  quickly  introduced  into  the  United 
States?     Who  tended  the  spindles  in  Slater's  mill? 

5.  What  invention  helped  the  South  to  produce  enough  cotton  for  the 
new  factories  in  England  and  the  United  States?  How  did  the  demand  for  cotton 
influence  the  migration  westward?  What  effect  had  it  on  the  talk  of  freeing 
the  slaves? 

6.  How  did  the  American  Revolution  affect  Frenchmen?  What  were  the 
chief  causes  of  the  Revolution  in  France?  Why  did  some  oppose  the  changes 
in  France?     What  larger  war  resulted  from  the  French  Revolution? 

7.  What  did  Americans  think  of  the  French  war?  Why  did  some  want  to 
help  France?    Why  did  Washington  and  his  advisers  decide  not  to  help  France? 


262  THE   UNITED    STATES    AND    EUROPE 

8.  What  did  Genet  attempt  to  do?  What  advantage  did  American  ship- 
masters have  in  trade  over  the  Enghsh  and  French?  How  did  the  Enghsh 
try  to  deprive  them  of  this  advantage?  Under  what  conditions  did  England 
allow  them  to  carry  French  sugar  and  coffee  to  Europe? 

9.  What  other  trouble  did  the  United  States  have  with  Great  Britain? 
How  much  did  Jay's  treaty  obtain  in  the  way  of  concessions  from  England? 

10,  How  was  the  Mississippi  question  finally  settled? 

11,  What  did  the  French  do  when  they  heard  of  Jay's  treaty  with  England? 
What  did  France  do  which  brought  the  United  States  and  France  to  the  verge 
of  a  great  war?  How  did  President  Adams  and  the  Federalists  in  dealing  witl> 
the  French  trouble  make  a  great  many  opponents  and  so  bring  on  their  defeat 
in  the  next  election? 

12,  Why  were  the  wars  of  France  and  the  inventions  of  England  both 
profitable  for  many  Americans? 

EXERCISES 

1,  Describe  the  method  of  making  cloth  before  the  industrial  revolution. 
If  possible  first  visit  a  museum  where  the  hand  machines  formerly  used  may 
be  seen. 

2,  If  possible  visit  a  cotton  or  woolen  mill  and  learn  about  the  various  stages 
in  making  cloth  today, 

3,  Tell  the  story  of  the  invention  of  Hargreaves's  spinning  jenny, 

4,  Tell  the  story  of  how  Samuel  Slater  introduced  the  spinning  machinery 
into  the  United  States, 

5,  Tell  the  story  of  Eli  Whitney's  cotton-gin, 

6,  Review  in  Chapter  XX  the  way  in  which  American  merchants  had  secured 
a  profitable  trade  in  the  West  Indies  in  1785  and  1786,  What  trouble  had 
they  over  this  trade  during  the  war  between  England  and  France? 

7,  Review  in  Chapter  XX  the  early  history  of  the  Mississippi  question. 
Who  were  naturally  greatly  pleased  by  the  final  settlement? 

Important  Events: 

1789,   Samuel  Slater  sets  up  a  spinning  mill  at  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island. 

The  French  Revolution  begins. 
1793,   Eli  Whitney  invents  the  cotton-gin. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

RULE    OF    JEFFERSON:    A   NEW   WEST 

Jefferson  elected  President. —  The  Federalists  had  guided 
the  country  safely  past  the  dangers  of  war  with  Great  Britain 
and  France,  but  their  rule  had  become  unpopular.  They 
stood  for  strong  government  and  high  taxes.  Although 
Adams  expelled  no  Frenchman  under  the  Alien  Act,  the 
power  it  gave  him  offered  his  opponents  the  chance  to  call 
him  a  tyrant.  Moreover,  he  had  permitted  several  Repub- 
lican journaKsts  to  be  prosecuted  under  the  Sedition  Act. 
The  RepubHcans  for  years  had  been  accusing  him  of  being 
at  heart  a  monarchist. 

In  1800  the  new  election  took  place.  Now  that  Washing- 
ton was  dead,  the  Federalists  quarreled  among  themselves. 
Hamilton  criticized  Adams  pubHcly,  but  could  not  prevent 
his  nomination.  The  RepubHcans  nominated  Jefferson,  who 
was  very  popular  except  in  New  England  and  among  the 
merchants  of  the  coast  towns.  Jefferson  was  victorious, 
obtaining  73  electoral  votes,  while  Adams  received  65.^ 

The  New  Capital.  —  One  of  the  last  acts  of  the  Federalists 
was  to  move  the  seat  of  government  from  Philadelphia  to 
Washington,  the  new  capital  on  the  Potomac.  The  city  was 
located  in  a  tract  of  land  ten  miles  square,  called  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  which   had  been   given   to   the   United 

^Jefferson  and  his  Republican  "running-mate,"  Aaron  Burr,  received  the 
same  number  of  votes,  and  the  House  of  Representatives  chose  Jefferson  Pres- 
ident and  Burr  Vice-President.  An  amendment  was  adopted  in  1804  which 
required  the  electors  to  vote  separately  for  President  and  Vice-President. 


264 


RULE  OF  JEFFERSON:  A  NEW  WEST 


States  by  Virginia  and  Maryland.^  It  was  laid  out  on  a 
spacious  plan,  its  wide  streets,  large  parks,  and  gardens 
taking  up  more  than  half  the  ground.  Little  had  been  done 
by  1800.  A  row  of  dreary  boarding-houses,  a  partly  finished 
capitol  building  for  Congress,  a  President's  house  —  these 
were  all.  The  streets  were  ungraded,  and  ran  through  vast 
patches  of  scrubby  oak,  wild  ravines,  and  marshy  river  flats. 


The  White  House  in  1800 

Many  made  fun  of  it  as  a  city  of  magnificent  distances,  or 
the  seat  of  the  President's  ''palace  in  the  woods."  It  seemed 
a  dreary  place  to  the  members  of  Congress  accustomed  to 
the  gay  Hfe  of  Philadelphia. 

The  New  President.  —  The  new  President  was  more 
interesting  than  the  new  capital.  In  appearance  he  was  tall, 
of  a  reddish  complexion,  freckled,  awkward,  and  shy  in 
manner.  An  English  traveler  said  that  he  looked  like 
a  "large-boned  farmer."  Although  a  great  landowner  and 
planter  in  Virginia,  he  was  a  man  of  simple  habits.  He 
disHked  the  ceremonial  with  which  Washington  had  sur- 
rounded the  duties  of  the  President.  Instead  of  proceeding 
to  the  capitol  building  for  his  inauguration  in  a  coach  drawn 

1  In  1846  Congress  returned  Virginia's  part,  south  of  the  Potomac,  because 
it  was  not  needed. 


JEFFERSON'S  ADMINISTRATION 


265 


by  six  cream-colored  horses,  as  Adams  had  done,  he  walked 
across  the  square  from  his  boarding-house  accompanied  by 
a  few  friends  and  escorted  by  the  militia. 

When  Jefferson  wrote  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
''that  all  men  are  born  equal,"  he  meant  every  word.  Like 
the  early  leaders  of  the  French 
Revolution,  many  of  whom 
were  his  friends,  he  thought 
men,  especially  the  ''plain 
people,"  were  inclined  to  do 
right  and  could  be  trusted. 
He  believed  that  the  people 
should  be  left  to  govern  them- 
selves in  their  towns,  counties, 
and  states  with  as  Kttle  inter- 
ference from  the  central  gov- 
ernment as  possible.  He 
would  have  every  man  vote 
who  earned  a  living,  instead 
of  limiting  the  privilege  to  property  holders,  as  in  most  of 
the  older  states. 

Jefferson  was  already  famous.  He  had  been  governor  of 
Virginia  and  minister  to  France  after  Franklin's  return.  In 
Virginia  he  had  not  only  carried  through  laws  dividing  a 
father's  estate  equally  among  all  the  children,  but  he  had 
also  brought  it  about  that  every  one  should  be  free  to  at- 
tend and  support  the  church  he  preferred  or  none  at  all.  In 
other  words,  he  estabhshed  religious  freedom  in  Virginia.  It 
was  his  ambition  to  organize  a  complete  system  of  educa- 
tion, beginning  with  the  elementary  school  and  ending  with 
a  university.  He  also  wished  to  free  children  born  of  negro 
slaves,  and  thus  gradually  bring  slavery  in  Virginia  to  an  end. 
He  said  he  wanted  "equal  and  exact  justice  for  all  men"  and 
"peace,  commerce,  and  honest  friendship  with  all  nations." 


Thomas  Jefferson 


266  RULE  OF  JEFFERSON:  A  NEW  WEST 

It  is  no  wonder  that  many  thought  his  election  a  great  event, 
the  promise  of  better  things  for  all  people. 

An  Economical  Administration.  —  As  soon  as  Jefferson 
became  President,  he  worked  to  lessen  the  expenses  of  the 
government.  The  army  was  reduced  from  4,000  to  2,500 
men.  This  could  be  done  because  the  danger  of  war  was 
over  for  the  time.  The  same  reason  made  possible  econo- 
mies in  the  navy,  which  Jefferson  beheved  '' caused  more 
dangers  than  it  prevented."  In  his  management  of  the 
finances  he  had  the  assistance  of  Albert  Gallatin,  an  able 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who  in  his  youth  had  emigrated 
to  America  from  Switzerland.  Within  eight  years  a  third  of 
the  public  debt  was  paid. 

Purchase  of  Louisiana.  —  Jefferson,  however,  was  ready 
to  spend  money  for  a  great  purpose.  In  1803  he  had  an 
unexpected  opportunity  to  purchase  the  vast  territor}^/  of 
Louisiana,  stretching  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  into  the  far 
northwest  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  came  about  in  this 
way.  One  of  the  ambitions  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  First 
Consul  of  France,  was  to  reestabhsh  the  French  colonial  em- 
pire destroyed  by  England  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  In 
1798,  two  years  before  he  became  First  Consul,  he  had  been 
sent  to  Egypt,  which  the  French  thought  would  be  a  good 
half-way  station  to  India.  Although  he  conquered  Egypt,  he 
was  obliged  to  abandon  it  because  his  fleet  was  beaten  by  an 
English  fleet  under  Lord  Nelson,  and  he  could  get  no  further 
help  from  home.  In  1802  France  and  England  made  peace, 
and  General  Bonaparte  resolved  to  recover  part  of  the  terri- 
tory that  the  French  had  once  held  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
He  had  already  compelled  the  Spaniards  to  promise  to  turn 
over  Louisiana  to  France  as  soon  as  he  should  be  ready  to 
occupy  it. 

Just  here  trouble  came.  Bonaparte  thought  that  he  should 
first  recover  Santo  Domingo,  a  rich  colony  in  the  West  Indies 


THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


267 


in  which  the  slaves  had  risen  in  an  insurrection  and  chosen 
a  negro  general,  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  as  their  ruler.  Bona- 
parte's officers  seized  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  but  other 
leaders  took  his  place  and  kept  up  the  struggle.  Soon  yellow 
fever  broke  out  in  the  French  army  and  the  soldiers  died  by 
thousands.     When  Bonaparte  heard  the  news,   he  reaHzed 


Gulf   of   Mexico        \,  1^        ^"^ 


The  Louisiana  Purchase 


the  difficulties  of  his  enterprise.  He  was  also  on  the  verge  of 
another  war  with  Great  Britain.  He  was  therefore  ready  to 
get  rid  of  Louisiana. 

Spain's  agreement  to  cede  Louisiana  to  France  had  been 
kept  a  secret,  but  Jefferson  suspected  it  soon  after  he  became 
President.  Possession  of  this  colony  by  Spain,  which  was 
growing  weaker  year  by  year,  had  no  terrors  for  the  Ameri- 
cans, but  possession  by  France,  under  such  a  leader  as  Bona- 
parte, was  another  affair.  The  western  settlers  feared  for 
their  river  trade,  which  already  formed  more  than  a  fourth  of 
the  commerce  of  the  United  States.  Their  alarm  was  changed 
to  a  certainty  of  impending  ruin  when,  in  1802,  the  Spanish 


268  RULE  OF  JEFFERSON:  A  NEW  WEST 

intendant  or  governor  at  New  Orleans  refused  to  allow 
Americans  to  deposit  their  goods  in  New  Orleans.  Western 
farmers  had  no  wish  to  leave  their  products  to  decay  in  their 
sheds  and  fields.  They  talked  of  war,  and  the  miKtia  of 
frontier  towns  began  to  drill  so  as  to  be  ready  in  case  war 
should  come. 

Jefferson,  like  Washington,  had  always  been  greatly  inter- 
ested in  the  prosperity  of  the  West,  but  he  did  not  wish  to  go 
to  war  with  France.  He  thought  that  the  best  way  was  to 
buy  New  Orleans  outright.  When  the  American  minister 
offered  to  buy  New  Orleans  he  was  asked,  "What  will  you 
give  for  the  whole  of  Louisiana?"  Napoleon  needed  money 
for  the  war  with  England  which  seemed  certain.  Besides, 
he  was  shrewd  enough  to  know  that  England's  superior 
navy  would  enable  her  to  take  Louisiana  anyway  and  pre- 
ferred to  sell  what  he  could  not  hope  to  keep. 

A  price,  $15,000,000,  was  easily  fixed,  and  the  bargain 
completed.  It  was  a  strange  transaction.  Napoleon  had 
no  right  to  sell  Louisiana  without  the  consent  of  Spain  and 
his  own  assembly  in  France.  Spain  vainly  protested  that  the 
sale  of  Louisiana  to  America  was  illegal.^  Many  Frenchmen 
also  were  bitterly  disappointed.  For  a  second  time  they  were 
obHged  to  abandon  the  attempt  to  create  a  New  France  in 
North  America. 

Did  the  President  have  Power  to  purchase  Louisiana?  — 
In  America  there  were  quarrels  over  the  purchase  of  Louisi- 
ana. Even  the  President  doubted  at  first  whether  the  Con- 
stitution gave  him  power  to  acquire  any  territory.  He  had 
in  times  past  denounced  Washington  and  Adams  and  the 
whole  FederaHst  party  for  using  powers  which  were  not  ex- 
pressly given  to  them  in  the  Constitution.  And  now  he  and 
his  own  party  were  doing  the  same  thing  in  annexing  Loui- 

^  An  agent  of  France  on  November  30,  1803,  received  Louisiana  from  the 
Spanish  governor,  and  1 7  days  later  turned  it  over  to  the  United  States. 


THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


269 


siana.  But  Jefferson  concluded  that  the  welfare  of  the 
country  was  more  important  than  his  earlier  notions  about 
the  powers  of  the  government. 

How  little  was  known  of  Louisiana.  —  Many  thought  that 
the  price  Jefferson  paid  for  the  new  territory,  which  was  at 
the  rate  of  three 
cents  an  acre, 
was  too  high. 
They  beHeved 
much  of  the  land 
to  be  worthless. 
Even  the  Presi- 
dent had  an  idea 
that  the  part 
east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi  was 
mostly  barren 
sands  and  sunk- 
en marshes. 
This  he  wanted 
only  because  it 
contained      the 


The  Old  Cabildo  of  New  Orleans 

In  this  the  official  transfer  of  Louisiana  by  France  to  the 
United  States  took  place 


mouths  of  rivers  like  the  Mississippi  and  the  Mobile.  As  for 
the  rest  of  Louisiana,  that  was  purchased  somewhat  as  boys 
trade  jack-knives,  ''sight  unseen."  The  greater  part  was  the 
hunting  ground  of  scattered,  roving  Indian  bands.  No 
white  man  knew  anything  definite  about  its  size,  its  bound- 
aries, or  its  resources. 

The  Louisiana  Purchase  doubled  the  size  of  the  United 
States  and  extended  it  into  the  very  heart  of  the  continent. 
This  single  territory  formed  an  area  larger  than  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  Spain,  Germany,  and  Italy  taken  together. 
Thirteen  states  and  parts  of  states  have  been  formed  from 
it  and  admitted  into  the  Union. 


270 


RULE  OF  JEFFERSON:  A  NEW  WEST 


In  1803  the  white  settlers  were  clustered  along  the  river 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  New  Orleans  was  the 
chief  town.  The  rivers  were  the  highways,  boats  the  car- 
riers, and  so  for  convenience  the  plantations  usually  fronted 
on  the  rivers,  as  in  early  Virginia  and  the  CaroHnas.  Most 
of  the  people  were  French  or  the  negro  slaves  of  French 
masters.  Two  or  three  small  French  villages,  including  St. 
Louis,  were  located  far  up  the  Mississippi  River,  but  the 


Lewis  and  Clark's  Route 

settlers  were  chiefly  the  trappers  and  Indian  traders  who 
always  hung  on  the  frontier  of  French  settlements  in  Amer- 
ica., A  few  emigrants  from  the  United  States  had  already 
pushed  into  this  foreign  colony.  Daniel  Boone,  finding  neigh- 
bors too  numerous  in  Kentucky,  was  trapping  and  farming 
on  the  Missouri  River,  near  its  mouth.  The  upper  courses 
of  the  Arkansas,  the  Missouri,  and  the  Mississippi  were  wholly 
unknown.  Traders  and  trappers  told  strange  tales  of  these 
regions  —  that  Indians  of  gigantic  stature  inhabited  the 
interior;  that  the  soil  was  too  rich  to  grow  trees;  that  a  thou- 
sand miles  up  the  Missouri  existed  a  vast  mountain  ''of  solid 
rock-salt,  without  any  trees  or  even  shrubs  on  it,''  measuring 
180  miles  in  length  and  45  in  width. 


LEWIS  AND   CLARK'S  EXPEDITION 


271 


Lewis  and  Clark's  Expedition,  1804-06.  —  In  1804  Jefferson 
sent  Meriwether  Lewis,  his  private  secretary,  and  WilHam 
Clark,  a  younger  brother  of  George  Rogers  Clark,  to  explore 
the  new  territory,  find  a  path  through  the  mountains  to  the 
Pacific,  and  learn  what  they  could  of  the  country  and  its 
Indian  tribes. 
Two  score  and 
five  frontiers- 
men made  up 
the  expedition. 
They  rowed, 
or  with  favor- 
able winds  sail- 
ed, the  boats 
slowly  up  the 
Missouri, 
camping  at 
night.  They 
supplied  them- 
selves  with 
food  from  the 

wild  game  which  abounded  in  the  region  —  geese,  antelope, 
deer,  bear,  elk,  and  enormous  herds  of  buffalo. 

The  party  wintered  among  friendly  Indians  near  where 
Bismarck,  the  capital  of  North  Dakota,  now  stands,  and  with 
small  canoes  pushed  on  up  the  shallower  waters  of  the  Upper 
Missouri.  An  Indian  squaw,  called  the  Bird  Woman,  who 
had  been  kidnapped  from  a  mountain  tribe,  accompanied 
them  from  their  winter  camp  and  won  for  them  the  friendship 
of  her  kindred  in  the  mountains.  The  explorers  followed 
the  course  of  the  Missouri  across  North  Dakota  and  Montana 
until  the  river  separated  into  three  branches.  These  were 
named  the  Jefferson,  the  Madison,  and  the  Gallatin.  The 
expedition  pushed  on  up  the  Jefferson  branch  until  this  was 


Gates  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

So  called  by  Lewis  and  Clark,  who  passed  them  July  ig,  1805. 

The  Missouri  River  is  here  confined  by  a  spur  of  the 

Big  Belt  Mountains 


272  RULE  OF  JEFFERSON:  A  NEW  WEST 

no  longer  navigable.  Then  they  left  their  canoes  and  bought 
horses  from  the  Indians,  who  showed  them  a  path  through 
the  mountains.  After  a  time  they  could  not  find  game  and 
had  to  kill  some  of  their  horses  for  food.  When  they  reached 
a  large  river  that  flowed  westward,  they  made  canoes  and 
floated  down  to  the  Columbia.  They  followed  the  Columbia 
until  it  broadened  into  a  bay  studded  with  low  islands,  and 
until  the  roar  of  breakers  showed  them  that  they  had  reached 
the  Pacific. 

They  were  now  2,100  miles  from  St.  Louis.  They  built 
log-huts  and  spent  a  second  winter  in  the  western  wilderness 
surrounded  by  Indians.  The  return  was  easier,  and  they 
reached  St.  Louis  on  September  23,  1806.  It  was  an  expe- 
dition worthy  to  rank  with  that  of  De  Soto  and  Coronado. 
One  man  had  died  and  only  one  Indian  had  been  killed. 

Zebulon  Pike.  —  At  the  same  time  Zebulon  Pike  was  sent 
to  explore  other  portions  of  Louisiana  Territory.  In  1805, 
with  a  few  companions,  he  followed  the  Mississippi  River 
nearly  to  its  source.  In  1806  he  undertook  the  harder  task 
of  visiting  the  Indians  and  exploring  the  country  along  the 
eastern  border  of  the  Rocky  Mountains!  He  followed  the 
Missouri  and  then  the  Osage  River,  and  zigzagged  across 
the  plains  of  Kansas,  touching  once  the  boundary  of  what  is 
now  Nebraska  and  at  another  time  that  of  Oklahoma.  Pike 
thought  that  the  Arkansas  River  valley  must  be  a  paradise 
for  the  wandering  savages  because  of  the  abundance  of  game 
—  buffalo,  elk,  and  deer. 

Part  of  the  way  he  was  close  to  the  path  that  Coronado 
had  taken  from  New  Mexico  into  central  Kansas  265  years 
earlier.  He  met  few  Indians.  In  exploring  the  mountain 
front,  looking  for  a  pass,  Pike  found  and  described  the  Royal 
Gorge  of  the  Arkansas  River  and  the  beautiful  mountain 
peak  which  bears  his  name.  The  expedition  suffered  in- 
tensely when  winter  came  on.     At  one  time  the  members 


RESULTS  OF  WESTERN  EXPLORATION 


273 


were  four  days  without  food,  tramping  knee-deep  through 
snow,  and  loaded  down  with  some  seventy  pounds  of  baggage 
apiece.  The  famished  men  finally  found  a  herd  of  buffaloes. 
Pike  wandered  around  in  the  mountains  of  southern  Colo- 
rado until  he  crossed  the  frontier  into  the  territory  of  Spain. 
The  Spanish  authorities,  taking  him  to  be  a  spy,  seized  him 
and  carried  him  to  Santa  Fe  in  New  Mexico.     He  was  later 


Pike's  Route 

taken  to  El  Paso,  but  was  released  and  found  his  way  back  to 
the  United  States  in  1807. 

Results  of  Exploration  in  the  Far  West.  —  The  descrip- 
tion of  Louisiana  by  these  pathfinders  prepared  the  way  for 
its  settlement  later.  At  the  time  the  American  people  had 
enough  land  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Even  President  Jeffer- 
son thought  that  the  new  country  would  be  most  useful  if 
kept  as  a  reservation  for  the  Indians,  who  were  barring  the 
progress  of  settlement  in  the  older  territories.  Indian  trade 
and  trapping  for  furs  were  the  only  chances  for  immediate 
profit  from  the  vast  region. 

Oregon.  —  Lewis  and  Clark  had  pushed  far  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  Louisiana  and  laid  the  basis  for  a  claim  upon 
the  Oregon  country.     This  meant  all  that  territory  included 


274 


RULE  OF  JEFFERSON:  A  NEW  WEST 


in  the  present  states  of  Idaho,  Washington,  and  Oregon. 
Captain  Gray,  an  American  commander,  had  long  before,  in 
1792,  sailed  along  the  Pacific  coast.  In  181 1  John  Jacob 
Astor  estabHshed  a  trading  post,  named  Astoria,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  River.  All  these  expeditions  gave 
the  United  States  a  claim  on  Oregon  and  thus  an  opening 
for  the  United  States  to  the  Pacific.     Unfortunately  British 


Astoria  in  18 ii 
The  fur  traders'  post  of  the  Oregon  country 

fur  traders   claimed    the   same  region   for  England,  and  in 
181 2  drove  As  tor's  men  from  Astoria. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  were  the  Federalists  defeated  in  the  election  of  1800?  Who  was 
elected  President? 

2.  What  change  was  made  in  the  location  of  the  United  States  capital? 
How  did  the  national  government  secure  the  District  of  Columbia?  Describe 
Washington  in  1800. 

3.  Why  was  Jefferson  popular  with  the  "plain  people"?  What  were  his 
ideas  of  government?  What  had  he  accomplished  in  Virginia?  What  did  he 
do  to  lessen  the  expenses  of  the  government? 

4.  What  was  Napoleon's  New  World  project?  How  did  he  attempt  to 
carry  this  out?  Why  was  he  obliged  to  abandon  it?  Why  was  he  ready  in 
1803  to  get  rid  of  Louisiana? 

5.  Why  were  Americans  alarmed  over  the  cession  of  Louisiana  from  Spain 
to  France?     How  did  Spain  further  alarm  them  in  1802? 

6.  Describe  the  purchase  of  Louisiana.     What  did  Jefferson  try  to  pur- 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES  275 

chase?     What  did  he  actually  secure?     Why  was  this  a  strange   thing  for 
Napoleon  and  Jefferson  to  do? 

7.  What  did  Americans  think  of  Louisiana?     Describe  the  settlements 
which  had  been  made  there. 

8.  Whom  did  Jefferson  send  to  explore  Louisiana?     Describe  the  journeys 
of  these  famous  explorers. 

9.  How  did  Jefferson  think  the  United  States  could  best  use  the  new 
territory?    Why  was  he  anxious  to  move  the  Indians  westward? 

10.  What  country  besides  Louisiana  did  Lewis  and  Clark  explore?  What 
claims  had  the  United  States  on  Oregon?  What  other  nation  now  also  claimed 
Oregon? 


Scene  on  the  Columbia  River 
Showing  Mount  Hood 

EXERCISES 

1.  Review  Chapters  XXI  and  XXII  for  a  list  of  things  accomphshed  by 
the  Federalists. 

2.  Review  the  exploration  of  Coronado  in  the  Southwest.  See  page  10  or 
Introductory  American  History,  pages  193-203. 

3.  Trace  on  an  outhne  map  the  journeys  of  Lewis  and  Clark  and  of  Pike, 
making  a  list  of  the  present  states  which  they  touched. 

4.  Which  country,  the  United  States  or  Spain,  had  the  greater  part  of  the 
territory  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  after  the  purchase  of  Louisiana?  (See 
map,  page  267.)  What  must  both  do  next  if  they  were  to  hold  the  terri- 
tories they  claimed? 

Important  Dates: 

1 80 1.   Thomas  Jefferson  becomes  President. 

1803.   Louisiana  purchased  from  France, 

1804-1806.   Lewis  and  Clark  explore  Louisiana  and  Oregon. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE    UNITED    STATES   AND    THE    NAPOLEONIC    WARS 

Turmoil  again  in  Europe.  —  A  month  after  the  United 
States  bought  Louisiana  from  Napoleon,  war  broke  out  be- 
tween France  and  England.  This  war  was  in  reality  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  war  which  had  been  waged  from  1793  until 
1802.  It  did  not  end  until  1814.  If  the  first  war  had  given 
American  merchants  an  opportunity  to  carry  a  large  part 
of  the  freight  between  the  West  Indies  and  Europe,  the 
new  war  seemed  likely  to  be  still  more  profitable,  because 
all  European  countries  except  Turkey  were  finally  drawn 
into  it. 

European  War  and  the  United  States.  —  Could  the  Amer- 
icans keep  out  of  a  struggle  which,  hke  a  terrible  whirlpool, 
might  engulf  those  who  appeared  to  be  at  a  safe  distance? 
Their  experience  during  the  war  which  began  in  1793  showed 
the  danger.  All  the  influence  of  Washington  had  been  needed 
to  keep  them  from  attacking  the  Enghsh  in  1794.  In  the 
new  war  their  self-restraint  was  due  to  the  influence  of 
President  Jefferson  and  of  President  Madison,  who  succeeded 
him  in  1809.^  Nevertheless  they  were  finally  drawn  into  the 
struggle.     The  War  of  181 2  was  the  consequence. 

The  War  at  first  a  Duel  between  France  and  England.  — 
From  1803  to  1805  the  contest  was  between  the  Enghsh  and 
the  French.  It  was  almost  as  if  an  elephant  should  try  to 
attack  a  whale.    The  French  army  was  the  best  in  Europe. 

^  In  1804  Jefferson  was  overwhelmingly  reelected.  In  the  election  four 
years  later  Jefferson  supported  his  Secretary  of  State,  James  Madison,  who  was 
chosen  President  after  a  contest  almost  as  one-sided  as  that  of  1804. 


WAR  BETWEEN  FRANCE  AND   ENGLAND 


277 


fiW'? 


It  was  commanded  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  greatest 
general  of  modern  times,  whom  the  French  proclaimed  their 
Emperor  in  1804.  On  land  the  French  army  seemed  uncon- 
querable so  long  as  he  was  at  its  head.  But  it  could  not 
attack  the  Enghsh  directly,  although  England  is  separated 
from  the  Continent  only  by  the  Channel,  which  is  twenty- 
five  miles  wide.  In  the  ''narrow  seas,"  as  well  as  on  the 
broad  ocean,  the  Enghsh  seemed  invincible  because  of  their 
powerful  navy.  The  French 
had  many  battleships,  but  these 
were  blockaded  in  French  ports 
by  Enghsh  fleets. 

Only  once  during  the  war  did 
the  French  venture  to  fight  the 
English  on  the  sea.  This  was  off 
Cape  Trafalgar  in  October,  1805, 
and  their  fleet,  together  with  the 
ships  of  Spain,  at  that  time 
their  ally,  numbered  33.  The 
Enghsh  had  27  ships,  but  they 
were  commanded  by  Lord  Nel- 
son, who  was  as  skilful  on  the 
sea  as  Napoleon  was  on  the  land.  What  a  tremendous 
conflict,  60  ships-of-the-line,  many  of  them  carrying  a  hun- 
dred cannon!  The  French  and  the  Spaniards  sailed  in  a 
long  line,  while  the  English  moved  down  upon  them  in  two 
•lines  or  columns.  Nelson's  flag-ship,  the  Victory,  was  at  the 
head  of  one  column.  At  its  mast-head  flew  Nelson's  signal, 
''England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty."  Few  French 
or  Spanish  ships  escaped  in  the  fierce  struggle  which  followed. 
Nelson  was  killed,  but  his  last  victory  gave  England  com- 
mand of  the  seas  for  a  century. 

Extension  of  the  War. — In  1805  the  war  began  to  spread. 
Austria   and  Russia  became  England's  alHes  and  declared 


Lord  Nelson 


278      AMERICA   AND    THE    NAPOLEONIC    WARS 

war  on  France.  They  were  defeated,  and  Austria  made 
peace.  In  1806  Prussia,  aided  by  Russia,  tried  to  drive 
the  terrible  French  Emperor  from  Germany,  but  both  were 
beaten  and  obliged  to  make  peace.  Then  Sweden,  Den- 
mark, and  Portugal  were  forced  to  take  sides.  Holland  was 
from  the  beginning  managed  by  the  French.  By  1807  the 
United  States  was  the  only  neutral  of  importance.  Could 
the  United  States  trade  peacefully  in  such  a  warring  world? 

How  American  Trade  was  affected.  —  The  answer  to  the 
question  depended  upon  the  EngHsh,  for  the  United  States 
had  only  a  few  frigates,  while  the  EngHsh  had  at  least  75 
battleships.  At  first  the  English  permitted  American  mer- 
chants to  import  French,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  sugar  and 
coffee  from  the  West  Indies  and  export  them  to  Europe. 
But  they  soon  found  that  the  American  shippers  could 
undersell  them  in  the  European  market,  notwithstanding 
the  expense  of  carrying  the  sugar  first  into  a  port  of  the 
United  States  and  unloading  it.  The  EngKsh  merchants  and 
planters  complained  that  their  business  was  suffering.  The 
EngHsh  government  then  began  seizing  American  ships 
engaged   in   this   trade. 

EngHsh  war  ships  cruised  off  the  ports  of  the  United  States 
and  stopped  vessels  passing  in  and  out,  taking  possession  of 
those  which  had  broken  any  of  the  rules  that  the  EngHsh  gov- 
ernment had  made  in  regard  to  neutral  trade.  In  stopping 
a  vessel  near  New  York  several  shots  were  fired,  one  of  which 
killed  the  steersman.  Sometimes  when  the  EngHsh  vessels  • 
disappeared  French  vessels,  equally  contemptuous  of  Ameri- 
can rights,  would  take  their  places. 

The  English  Excuse.  —  The  EngHsh  parHament  had  to 
Hsten  to  the  complaints  of  merchants,  shipowners,  and  plant- 
ers, because  it  was  laying  heavy  taxes  upon  them.  England 
was  obliged  to  lend  vast  sums  to  her  alHes  on  the  Continent, 
otherwise  they  could  not  have  kept  up  the  conflict  with  the 


THE  EMBARGO 


279 


French  for  six  months.  Even  before  the  war  began  in  1803 
England's  debt  amounted  to  five  billion  dollars,  at  the  pres- 
ent value  of  money.  Every  man  with  more  than  $2,000 
income  was  compelled  to  give  a  tenth  of  it  in  taxes  to  the 
government. 

Difficulties  increase.  —  In  1806  and  1807  troubles  thickened 
for  the  American  merchants. 
The  EngHsh  declared  that  they 
would  capture  any  ships  which 
tried  to  enter  ports  on  the  north- 
western coast  of  France.  Bona- 
parte retorted  by  declaring  that 
French  ships  would  seize  any 
vessel  which  traded  with  Great 
Britain.  England's  reply  to  this 
challenge  was  that  their  enemies 
in  Europe  should  not  have  any 
coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  or  dye 
stuffs,  unless  they  purchased 
these  products  from  English 
merchants  or  from  neutral  mer- 
chants whose  ships  stopped  at 
an  EngHsh  port  and  paid  taxes  on  the  cargoes.  In  1807, 
before  these  rules  went  into  effect,  the  United  States  exported 
64,000,000  pounds  of  cotton  alone,  worth  $5,476,000. 

The  Embargo.  —  No  one  would  greatly  blame  Jefferson  and 
Congress  if  they  had  gone  to  war  at  this  time,  so  serious  were 
the  wrongs  under  which  the  United  States  was  suffering. 
They  decided  instead  to  attempt  to  compel  the  British  to 
respect  American  rights  by  threatening  not  to  buy  English 
goods.  This  had  been  a  useful  weapon  in  obtaining  the  repeal 
of  the  Stamp  Act  many  years  before.  But  the  situation  in 
December,  1807,  looked  so  serious  that  Jefferson  urged  Con- 
gress to  pass  an  Act  called  an  ''Embargo,"  forbidding  Amer- 


Napoleon  Bonaparte 
After  the  portrait  by  Paul  Delaroche 


28o      AMERICA   AND    THE    NAPOLEONIC    WARS 

ican  vessels  to  leave  port,  and  forbidding  all  other  vessels  to 
carry  any  cargo  which  was  not  on  board  at  the  time  they 
were  notified  of  the  Act.  The  Embargo  enraged  the  New 
England  shipowners,  who  were  making  money  in  spite  of 
Bonaparte's  declarations  and  England's  orders.  They  could 
afford  to  lose  a  ship  or  two  now  and  then,  taking  into  account 
the  enormous  profits  obtained  when  they  landed  colonial 
products  or  their  own  goods  in  Europe.  The  size  of  the 
profits  may  be  guessed  when  it  is  remembered  that  the 
price  of  sugar  in  Paris  rose  steadily  until  in  1811  it  was  80 
cents  a  pound. 

As  English  vessels  could  still  bring  cargoes  to  the  United 
States,  although  they  could  take  no  cargoes  away,  the  Eng- 
lish shipowners  did  not  suffer.  They  had  a  monopoly  of  the 
ocean  freight  business,  except  that  along  the  coast.  The  New 
Englanders  complained  so  strongly,  even  threatening  to 
secede  from  the  Republic,  that  Just  before  Jefferson's  term  of 
office  ended  a  Non-Intercourse  Act  was  substituted  for  the 
Embargo.  By  this  Act  trade  was  permitted  with  all  coun- 
tries except  England  and  France,  and  would  be  permitted 
with  them  if  they  agreed  to  treat  American  ships  fairly. 

Conduct  of  Napoleon.  —  In  all  these  difficulties  the  Ameri- 
cans had  as  much  reason  to  complain  of  Napoleon's  conduct 
as  of  that  of  the  British  government.  At  one  time  he  seized 
American  ships  worth  $10,000,000.  French  privateers  also 
did  a  good  deal  of  damage  to  neutral  shipping.  However, 
the  French  had  far  less  power  for  harm  than  the  English. 

Impressment  of  Seamen.  —  The  quarrel  with  the  English 
over  the  impressment  of  seamen  was  quite  as  fierce  as  the 
quarrel  about  trade.  It  was  customary  in  England,  when  a 
crew  was  needed  for  a  war  ship,  to  send  bodies  of  marines, 
called  "press-gangs,"  through  the  sailors'  haunts  in  the  ports 
and  seize  enough  seamen.  If  a  sailor  happened  to  be  an 
American,  he  might  be  seized  with  the  rest.     The  United 


IMPRESSMENT  OF   SEAMEN  281 

States  had  no  agents  in  England  who  could  protect  its  sail- 
ors from  such  outrages.  English  war  ships  also  frequently 
stopped  merchant  vessels  on  the  ocean  and  took  the  men  they 
needed.  If  they  thought  there  were  EngHshmen  on  board 
American  vessels,  they  stopped  them  also.  The  fact  that  a 
sailor  had  been  naturalized  did  not  save  him,  for  the  officers 
held  that  he  had  not  ceased  to  be  an  Englishman.  Before 
these  troubles  ended  about  4,000  Americans  were  serving 
against  their  will  in  the  British  navy. 

The  injustice  was  not  all  on  one  side.  While  American 
merchants  were  making  money  as  neutral  traders,  they  were 
eager  to  obtain  men.  The  number  of  sailors  in  the  United 
States  was  not  sufficient  to  man  all  the  ships.  The  merchants, 
accordingly,  offered  higher  wages,  raising  them  from  $8  a 
month  to  $24.  The  bait  proved  attractive,  especially  as 
the  EngHsh  sailors  were  poorly  paid  and  ill-treated.  Scores 
began  to  desert.  Some  ships  had  scarcely  men  enough  to 
get  out  of  the  American  port  which  they  had  entered.  At 
Norfolk,  Virginia,  one  ship  lost  every  sailor.  The  sailors 
often  changed  their  names,  obtained  naturalization  papers, 
and  pretended  that  they  were  American  citizens.  News  of 
such  things  enraged  the  British  naval  officers  and  they  grew 
more  insulting  in  their  search  of  American  ships.  Their  acts 
would  not  have  been  endured  for  a  moment  had  the  United 
States  been  strong  enough  to  compel  the  British  government 
to  change  its  way  of  deahng  with  the  difficulty. 

The  "Chesapeake"  and  the  "Leopard,"  1807.  — In  1807 
several  sailors  deserted  from  British  frigates  in  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  afterward  enHsted  on  the  United  States  frigate 
Chesapeake,  which  was  then  being  fitted  out  for  service  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  British  officers  requested  the  return  of 
the  men,  but  American  officials  refused.  This  refusal  angered 
the  British  admiral  at  HaHfax  and  he  ordered  that  the  Chesa- 
peake be  searched  as  soon  as  it  appeared  on  the  ocean.     The 


282      AMERICA   AND    THE    NAPOLEONIC    WARS 

task  was  assigned  to  the  frigate  Leopard.  The  com- 
mander of  the  Chesapeake  rightly  refused  to  permit  a 
search,  but  his  ship  was  not  ready  for  a  battle.  The  Leap- 
ard  fired  upon  him  and  in  a  few  minutes  he  was  forced  to 
surrender.  The  news  of  the  outrage  sent  a  thrill  of  anger 
through  the  country.  Jefferson  was  still  anxious  to  main- 
tain peace. 

Madison's  Efforts  to  keep  Peace. — President  Madison 
had  no  better  success  than  Jefferson  in  persuading  the  English 
and  the  French  to  respect  the  rights  of  neutral  traders.  After 
he  had  been  in  office  a  year  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  was  with- 
drawn, on  the  understanding  that  if  either  England  or  France 
promised  to  deal  fairly  with  American  trade,  all  commerce 
with  the  other  was  to  be  broken  off.  Napoleon  hastened  to 
make  such  an  offer, ^  hoping  to  bring  on  a  conflict  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  His  shrewd  offer  was  suc- 
cessful. Congress  passed  a  new  Non-Intercourse  Act  directed 
against  the  English. 

Tippecanoe.  —  In  1811  the  people  of  the  West  were  aroused 
against  the  English  because  of  a  threatened  Indian  attack 
under  the  leadership  of  a  chief  named  Tecumseh.  It  was  said 
that  the  Indians  were  furnished  with  arms  by  English  traders. 
The  real  cause  of  Indian  hostihty  was  the  steady  advance  of 
the  settlers  into  the  Indian  hunting  grounds.  The  people  of 
Indiana  Territory  did  not  wait  to  be  attacked,  but,  led  by 
their  governor.  General  William  Henry  Harrison,  marched 
against  the  Indians,  defeated  them  at  Tippecanoe  Creek,  and 
burned  their  villages. 

Henry  Clay  and  Other  "War  Hawks."  —  Many  had  now 
become  dissatisfied  with  the  policy  of  peace  which  Jefferson 
and  Madison  held.     Foremost  among  these  was  Henry  Clay 

^  At  this  very  time  Napoleon  was  threatening  Russia  with  war  because  the 
Emperor  Alexander  refused  to  seize  several  hundred  American  ships  in  the 
Baltic  Sea. 


THE   "WAR  HAWKS"  283 

of  Kentucky.  He  was  a  young  lawyer,  gifted  with  a  musi- 
cal voice  and  a  charming  manner.  He  was  ably  aided  by 
others,  like  himself  full  of  enthusiasm  for  American  rights 
and  confident  of  American  success  in  a  war.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished of  these  was  John  C.  Calhoun,  also  a  young  man, 
and  like  Clay  a  brilliant  debater.  These  leaders,  who  had  just 
been  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  did  everything 
they  could  to  bring  on  war  with  England.  John  Randolph, 
who  hated  them  both,  called  them  and  their  followers  ''War 
Hawks." 

The  War  Hawks  were  mainly  from  the  new  West  and  the 
farther  South,  which  were  without  great  sea-ports  or  exposed 
shores.  Many  of  the  New  Englanders  thought  Napoleon 
a  greater  enemy  than  the  English.  The  War  Hawks  were 
willing  to  wage  war  against  both  England  and  France,  except 
for  the  cost  and  risk  of  defeat.  Madison  and  other  states- 
men from  the  middle  states,  and  especially  from  Virginia, 
were  opposed  to  war  with  either  country  if  it  could  be 
avoided.  Clay  argued  that  the  United  States  could  conquer 
Canada,  and  then  England  would  either  have  to  yield  or  lose 
its  colony.  This  argument  won  the  majority  in  Congress; 
Madison,  weary  of  the  conflict,  gave  way,  and  war  was 
declared. 

Should  the  War  have  been  avoided?  —  On  June  18,  181 2, 
Congress  declared  war.  Two  days  before  this  the  English 
government  decided  to  withdraw  a  part  of  the  regulations 
which  had  injured  American  merchants.  The  news  did  not 
reach  the  United  States  until  long  after  the  war  had  begun. 
Moreover,  the  other  grievances  remained.  The  War  Hawks 
thought  the  sejzur£_pf  the  sailors  worse  than  interference 
with  American  trade. 

In  declaring  war  on  Great  Britain  in  181 2  the  United  States 
became  virtually  an  ally  of  Napoleon  and  helped  him  in  two 
enterprises  with  which  they  could  have  had  no  sympathy. 


284      AMERICA   AND    THE    NAPOLEONIC    WARS 

For  years  .he  had  been  trying  to  place  his  brother  on  the 
Spanish  throne  and  the  Spaniards  were  fighting  desperately 
to  prevent  it.  The  Engfish  under  Welhngton  were  assisting 
the  Spaniards  and  had  defeated  several  French  armies  in  Por- 
tugal and  in  Spain.  Of  course,  to  attack  the  English  was  to 
aid  Napoleon's  Spanish  enterprise,  at  least  indirectly. 


Europe  at  the  height  of  Napoleon's  Power 


In  181 2  Napoleon  invaded  Russia  with  an  immense  army 
in  order  to  humble  the  Emperor,  who,  for  one  thing,  had 
refused  to  seize  American  neutral  vessels  in  the  Baltic  Sea 
two  years  before.  If  the  Americans  succeeded  in  keeping 
England,  Napoleon's  other  principal  enemy,  busy,  the  Rus- 
sians might  conclude  that  they  were  badly  rewarded  for 
their  fairness.  The  War  Hawks  of  181 2  thought  neither  of 
the  Spanish  nor  of  the  Russian  campaign,  except  to  argue 
that  the  English  were  so  deeply  involved  in  their  struggle 
against  Napoleon  that  they  could  not  defend  Canada. 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES  285 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  was  Napoleon  Bonaparte  so  successful?  Why  was  it  impossible 
for  him  to  conquer  England?  What  happened  when  the  French  tried  to 
meet  the  English  on  the  high  seas? 

2.  What  other  countries  were  drawn  into  the  great  European  war?  What 
countries  did  Napoleon  control  from  the  first?  Which  did  he  conquer  dur- 
ing the  war? 

3.  Why  did  England  wish  to  stop  American  trade  in  sugar  and  coffee? 
Were  the  English  the  only  ones  who  interfered  with  American  rights?  What 
excuse  had  the  English  for  helping  their  merchants  to  secure  a  monopoly  of 
trade  during  the  war? 

4.  What  rules  about  trade  did  England  and  France  lay  down?  How  did 
such  rules  affect  American  merchants? 

5.  What  methods  did  Jefferson  employ  to  force  England  and  France  to 
respect  American  rights?  Why  did  the  Embargo  make  the  New  England 
ship-owners  angry?  Why  did  it  fail  to  injure  English  shipowners  as  much  as 
American?     What  did  Jefferson  substitute  for  the  Embargo? 

6.  How  did  Napoleon  treat  American  trade  on  the  seas?  Why  did  the 
United  States  overlook  his  acts? 

7.  What  other  grievances  had  the  United  States  against  the  British?  What 
did  the  Americans  do  which  gave  the  British  some  excuse  for  thinking  them 
unfair?     Tell  the  story  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Leopard. 

8.  How  did  Madison  try  to  bring  England  and  France  to  terms?  Why  did 
Napoleon  promise  to  deal  fairly  with  American  trade?  What  was  Congress 
then  obliged  to  do? 

9.  What  special  reason  had  the  people  of  the  West  for  being  angry  with 
the  British?     What  was  the  real  cause  of  the  Indian  trouble  in  the  West? 

10.  Who  began  in  181 2  vigorously  to  oppose  Madison's  way  of  dealing  with 
England  and  France?  What  expectation  had  the  "War  Hawks"  from  a  war 
with  England? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  two  lists:  one  under  the  heading,  "Reasons  why  the  war  should 
have  been  avoided,"  and  another  under  the  heading,  "Grounds  for  a  war  with 
England."  * 

2.  Have  the  class  choose  two  champions  to  debate  the  affirmative  and 
negative  sides  of  the  question,  "The  War  of  181 2  could  have  been  avoided." 

Important  Date: 

181 2.   War  is  declared  against  Great  Britain. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


THE   WAR    OF    1812 

An  Unequal  Struggle.  —  The  great  war  in  Europe,  although 
it  had  brought  war  upon  the  Americans,  saved  them  from 
some  of  the  perils  of  an  unequal  struggle.  What  could  the 
United  States  with  an  army  of  6,700  men  and  a  fleet  of  18 

ships  expect  to  accomplish 
against  England,  whose 
army  numbered  150,000 
men  and  whose  fleet  con- 
sisted of  900  ships?  Eng- 
land, however,  was  obliged 
to  guard  many  seas,  and 
could  despatch  only  a 
small  part  of  her  fleet  to 
American  waters.  She 
could  send  over  only  a  few 
regiments,  because  most  of 
her  soldiers  were  needed 
for  the  struggle  which 
Wellington  was  carrying  on  with  the  French  in  Spain. 

Invasion  of  Canada.  —  Clay  thought  that  it  would  be  easy 
to  take  Canada.  From  the  first  this  was  the  main  object  of 
the  United  States.^  The  leaders  forgot  that  the  task  was 
far  more  diflicult  than  it  would  have  been  during  the  Revo- 
lutionary War.  At  that  time  the  population  of  Canada  was 
chiefly  French.  Since  then  Upper  Canada  had  been  settled, 
much  of  it  with  loyalist  refugees  from  the  United  States. 
The  United  Empire  Loyalists  still  remembered  their  suffer- 


American  fleet 


English  fleet 


Relative  size  of  the  American  and 
English  Fleets 


EVENTS  OF  THE  FIRST  YEAR  287 

ings  at  the  hands  of  the  patriots  thirty  years  before,  and 
could  be  counted  upon  to  resist  stubbornly  the  attempts  of 
the  sons  of  the  patriots  to  seize  their  new  home. 

Hull's  lU-Fated  Attempt.  —  Three  separate  invasions  of 
Canada  were  planned:  one  from  Detroit,  a  second  from  the 
Niagara  frontier,  and  a  third  by  the  Hudson- Champlain 
route.  General  Hull  was  despatched  through  the  woods  of 
northwestern  Ohio  and  southern  Michigan  to  Detroit.  Most 
of  the  way  he  was  obliged  to  cut  a  road  for  his  troops.  It 
was  difficult  to  feed  his  soldiers,  for,  as  yet,  few  settlers  Kved 
on  the  southern  and  western  shores  of  Lake  Erie.  The 
single  boat  which  the  Americans  had  on  the  lake  was  soon 
captured  by  the  British.  Supplies  could  be  forwarded  only 
with  great  difficulty  and  expense.  It  cost  $60  to  carry  a 
barrel  of  flour  from  New  York  or  Philadelphia  to  Detroit. 
It  cost  fifty  cents  to  send  a  pound  of  powder  or  shot.  The 
difficulty  was  increased  by  the  hostility  of  the  Indians,  who 
had  not  been  crushed  by  their  defeat  at  Tippecanoe  the  year 
before.  Indeed,  Tecumseh  rallied  them  to  the  aid  of  the 
English  all  through  the  Northwest. 

Upon  his  arrival  in  Detroit,  Hull  issucjft  a  pompous  procla- 
mation, declaring  that  he  had  come  to  rescue  the  Canadians 
from  oppression.  The  legislature  of  Upper  Canada  retorted 
by  accusing  the  Americans  of  being  completely  under  the 
control  of  Bonaparte.  Hull's  expedition  speedily  came  to  a 
disastrous  end.  Threatened  by  an  army  of  British  soldiers, 
Canadian  militia,  and  Indians,  and  cut  off  from  reinforce- 
ments, he  surrendered  in  August,  181 2.  A  short  time  before 
the  British  had  captured  the  Httle  garrison  at  Mackinac,  and 
the  very  day  before  an  Indian  war  party  had  massacred 
most  of  the  garrison  at  Fort  Dearborn,  where  Chicago  now 
stands.  The  fall  of  Fort  Dearborn,  Mackinac,  and  Detroit 
gave  the  British  control  of  Michigan  Territory.  This  was 
a  bad  beginning. 


288 


THE   WAR  OF   1812 


Other  Invasions.  —  Every  attempt  of  the  American  armies 
to  invade  and  conquer  Canada,  made  in  1812,  1813,  and  18 14, 
failed  ingloriously.  Only  once  did  the  invaders  hold  their 
own.     In  18 14,  the  third  year  of  the  war,  General  Jacob  Brown 

and  General  Winiield 
Scott  met  the  Eng- 
lish and  Canadians 
at  Chippewa  and 
Lundy's  Lane,  both 
near  Niagara  River, 
and  proved  that 
American  soldiers 
were  fully  equal  to 
the  staunches t   Brit- 


Lake  Erie  and  the  Surrounding  Country  ^^^  regulars.  An  -Eng- 
lish officer  exclaimed 
after  the  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  "The  Americans  do  not 
know  when  they  are  beaten."  Even  from  these  engage- 
ments nothing  was  gained  beyond  a  display  of  courage,  for 
the  army  was  unable  to  advance  farther  into  Canada. 

Perry's  Victory  on  Lake  Erie.  —  The  most  important  object 
in  the  war  on  the  Canadian  frontier  was  the  control  of  the 
Lakes  —  Erie,  Ontario,  and  Champlain.  They  were  the 
highways  on  which  armies  and  suppHes  could  be  carried  to 
the  places  where  they  were  most  needed.  After  the  loss  of 
Detroit  the  United  States  was  particularly  anxious  to  destroy 
the  British  fleet  on  Lake  Erie.  Captain  Oliver  Hazard  Perry 
was  entrusted  with  the  task.  It  was  necessary  to  build  ships 
before  the  struggle  could  begin.  Timber  was  at  hand  along 
the  shore.  Workmen  were  brought  from  Philadelphia.  Iron 
was  gathered  from  farm  buildings  and  shops,  and  from  every 
available  source.  Supplies  were  forwarded  from  neighboring 
settlements.  Sails,  ropes,  guns,  and  ammunition  had  to  be 
carried  overland  from  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh  to  Erie, 


VICTORIES  OF  PERRY  AND  MACDONOUGH       289 

where  the  little  fleet  ^  was  being  built.  The  ships  were 
finally  ready,  and  on  September  10,  1813,  Perry  met  the 
British  squadron  in  battle  near  Put-in-Bay.  The  fighting 
was  stubborn.  Perry's  flag-ship,  the  Lawrence,  was  riddled 
with  shot  and  became  unmanageable.  Four-fifths  of  her 
crew  were  either  killed  or  wounded.  Perry,  undaunted, 
entered  a  boat  and  was  rowed  to  the  Niagara  in  the  midst  of 
the  battle.  Soon  the  victory  was  his.  He  tore  off  the  back 
of  an  old  letter,  and  with  his  hat  as  a  table,  wrote  the  news 
to  his  superior,  ''We  have  met  the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours. 
Two  ships,  two  brigs,  one  schooner,  and  one  sloop."  One 
of  the  results  of  the  victory  was  the  recovery  of  Detroit  and 
Michigan  Territory. 

Raid  on  Toronto,  1813.  —  Some  weeks  before  the  battle  on 
Lake  Erie,  an  expedition  dashed  across  Lake  Ontario  and 
took  Toronto,  or  York  as  it  was  then  named,  the  small  capital 
of  Upper  Canada.  Some  naval  stores  and  two  small  ships 
in  the  harbor  were  destroyed  or  captured.  Soldiers  acting 
without  orders  burned  the  house  where  the  provincial  assem- 
bly met.  But  the  explosion  of  a  powder  magazine,  near  the 
American  line  of  march,  killed  or  wounded  nearly  300  men 
and  made  the  affair  cost  more  than  it  was  worth. 

Macdonough's  Victory  on  Lake  Champlain,  1814. — 
Every  effort  to  conquer  Canada  had  failed.  In  18 14  it  looked 
as  if  the  tables  would  be  turned  and  that  the  British  would 
invade  the  United  States.  The  war  against  Napoleon  came 
to  an  end  in  April,  18 14,  and  16,000  of  Wellington's  veterans 
were  sent  to  Canada.  With  7,000  of  these  men  Sir  George 
Prevost,  the  Governor  General  of  Canada,  attempted  an 
invasion  by  the  same  route  that  Burgoyne  had  taken  thirty- 
seven  years  earHer.     His  land  forces  v/ere  accompanied  by  a 

^  Neither  this  fleet  nor  the  fleet  of  Macdonough  at  Plattsburg  would  have 
been  called  "fleets"  on  the  ocean.  The  largest  British  or  American  ship  on 
the  Lakes  was  not  even  so  large  as  the  Constitution. 


290  THE  WAR  OF   1812 

small  flotilla  on  Lake  Champlain.  An  American  force  occu- 
pied fortified  lines  at  Plattsburg.  On  the  lake  a  small  fleet, 
under  Commander  Macdonough,  was  drawn  up  awaiting  the 
British.  After  a  desperate  fight  the  British  ships  were  cap- 
tured or  dispersed.  Prevost  made  a  half-hearted  attack  on 
the  American  lines  and  then  returned  to  Canada. 

The  War  on  the  Sea.  —  Neither  the  Americans  nor  the 
British  permanently  occupied  any  territory  belonging  to  the 
other  along  the  border  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  war  was  not  more  decisive  in  other  quarters. 
There  could  be  no  attempt  by  the  Americans  to  oppose  fleet 
to  fleet  on  the  ocean,  for  they  did  not  possess  a  single 
ship-of-the-line.  Their  frigates  and  smaller  vessels  could  be 
used  only  in  attacking  Enghsh  commerce  or  in  fighting  sea- 
duels  with  ships  of  their  own  class. 

The  English  could  spare  ships  enough  to  estabhsh  a  strict 
blockade  of  the  American  coast.  They  boasted  that  they 
could  do  more.  They  declared  that  "not  a  sail,  but  by 
permission,  spreads."  They  felt  nothing  but  contempt  for 
the  little  American  fleet.  All  the  greater  was  their  chagrin 
when  frigates  like  the  Constitution  and  the  Essex  captured 
ship  after  ship  in  sea-duels. 

The  "Constitution"  and  the  "Guerriere."  —  Captain  Isaac 
Hull,  commander  of  the  Constitution,  and  a  nephew  of  the 
unfortunate  General  Hull,  had  scarcely  left  American  waters 
on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  in  July,  181 2,  when  he  was 
pursued  by  five  English  vessels.  He  put  on  all  sail,  but  as 
the  wind  died  down  escape  seemed  impossible.  Part  of  the 
time  he  had  boats  out  towing  his  vessel.  This  the  enemy 
could  do  as  well.  Then  he  kedged  his  ship,  that  is,  sent  a  boat 
a  half-mile  ahead  with  a  light  anchor  and  a  rope  attached. 
The  boat  dropped  the  anchor,  and  the  crew  on  the  Constitu- 
tion pulled  on  the  rope  until  the  ship  was  up  with  the  anchor. 
In  the  meantime  another  boat  had  set  another  anchor.     By 


NAVAL  VICTORIES 


291 


such  seamanship,  for  two  days  and  three  nights,  he  kept  be- 
yond reach  of  the  British  guns,  until  finally  a  storm  arose, 
which  enabled  the  Constitution  to  escape. 

A  few  weeks  later  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  the  Constitu- 
tion sighted  the  British  frigate 


Guerriere,^  and  gave  battle. 
The  Constitution  was  the  larg- 
er and  better  ship,  but  her 
principal  advantage  was  in  the 
skilful  marksmanship  of  her 
gunners.  After  forty  minutes 
the  Guerriere  lay  a  battered 
hulk.  The  Constitution  was 
almost  unharmed. 

The  rejoicing  in  America 
was  unbounded.  Its  tiny 
navy  was  proving  of  some 
value.  And  the  joy  was 
greater   because    the   people 

hated  the  Guerriere  for  its  share  in  searching  American  ves- 
sels along  the  coast  before  the  war  began.  Nor  was  the 
Constitution,  which  the  people  affectionately  called  '  Old 
Ironsides,"^  the  only  American  ship  to  win  fame.  Several 
others  fought  successfully  in  one  or  more  sea-duels. 

Exploits  of  the  "Essex."  — The  Essex,  one  of  the  smallest 
frigates  of  the  United  States,  built  and  given  to  the  govern- 
ment by  the  patriotic  citizens  of  Salem,  captured  ten  prizes 
in  the  Atlantic,  and  then  sailed  around  Cape  Horn  into  the 
Pacific  to  prey  on  British  commerce.     Captain  David  Porter 


The  "Constitution" 


1  Guerriere,  a  ship  which  the  British  had  captured  from  the  French.     The 
name  meant  "  warrior." 

2  Holmes' poem  on  OW7row5fie5  was  written  when  the  government  planned 
to  destroy  the  old  worn-out  wooden  ship.     The  plan  was  given  up. 
ship  is  now  preserved  in  Charleston  Navyyard. 


The 


292  THE  WAR  OF   1812 

managed  to  provide  his  ship  with  supplies,  war  material,  provi- 
sions, medicines,  and  even  money  to  pay  his  officers  and  men, 
from  the  British  ships  that  he  captured.  Once  when  his  pris- 
oners outnumbered  his  own  crew  two  to  one  and  planned  to 
seize  the  Essex,  the  timely  warning  of  his  young  midshipman, 
David  Farragut,  saved  him.^  In  the  Pacific  Captain  Porter 
captured  a  dozen  British  whaling  ships.  Porter  was  finally, 
after  a  year  and  a  half  of  successful  fighting,  caught  on  the 
shore  of  South  America  by  a  superior  force,  and  the  Essex 
was  captured. 

The  Blockade  of  the  Atlantic  Coast,  1813. — Long  before 
Porter's  eventful  voyage  had  ended,  the  American  coast  was 
completely  closed.  A  British  squadron  hovered  in  front  of 
each  important  sea-port.  Only  a  few  ships  like  the  Essex, 
and  some  privateers,  were  still  playing  the  war  game  of  hide 
and  seek  on  distant  seas  and  preying  on  England's  widespread 
commerce.^  In  America  almost  all  trade  by  sea  had  ceased. 
The  exports  and  imports  of  18 14  were  one-seventh  of  what 
they  had  been  in  18 10.  Things  Kke  sugar  and  tea  and  coffee 
became  so  costly  that  only  the  rich  could  afford  to  buy  them. 
The  goods  that  the  merchants  expected  to  send  abroad  lay 
in  port.  The  farmers  found  that  part  of  the  market  for 
their  crops  was  gone. 

The  War  Unpopular  in  New  England.  —  The  war  had  been 
unpopular  in  New  England  from  the  first.  Many  people 
believed  it  wrong  because  of  the  plan  to  conquer  Canada. 
Others  were  angry  at  the  loss  of  their  foreign  trade.  The 
war  became  doubly  unpopular  with  the  rise  of  prices  and  the 
increase  of  taxes.  Some  leaders  were  misguided  enough  to 
talk  of  secession  from  the  Union  and  of  a  separate  peace  with 

^  David  Farragut,  then  only  11  years  old,  later  became  one  of  America's 
famous  naval  officers. 

2  About  1,300  English  merchant  vessels  were  captured  during  the  war. 
American  swift-sailing  privateers  made  captures  even  along  the  English  coast. 


THE  BRITISH  BURN  WASHINGTON  293 

England.  The  governors  of  several  states  did  almost  nothing 
to  help  Madison  secure  men  and  money.  In  18 14  Massa- 
chusetts withdrew  its  miUtia  from  the  service  of  the  United 
States  and  directed  its  movements  as  if  it  had  been  an  in- 
dependent army  in  a  foreign  country.  Traders  even  carried 
provisions  to  the  British  army  on  the  Canadian  frontier  and 
to  British  vessels  on  the  coast. 

The  Burning  of  Washington,  18 14.  —  The  situation  of  the 
government  was  rendered  still  more  distressing  by  a  success- 


The  Capitol  after  the  Burning  of  Washington 

ful  raid  on  Washington.  No  preparations  had  been  made 
to  defend  the  capital.  Not  a  fort,  or  breastwork,  or  battery 
had  been  built.  A  force  of  4,500  veterans,  led  by  General 
Ross,  who  had  served  under  Wellington  in  Spain,  was  sent  in 
August  to  destroy  Washington  in  retahation  for  the  burning 
of  York  the  year  before.  He  marched  unchecked  to  the  city, 
and  burned  the  Capitol,  the  White  House,  and  other  buildings. 
President  Madison  and  his  Cabinet  took  refuge  in  Virginia. 

Attack  on  Baltimore. —  A  few  days  later  General  Ross 
attacked  Baltimore.^     But  the  citizens  of  Baltimore  prepared 

1  During  the  bombardment  Francis  Scott  Key  of  Baltimore  went  aboard  the 
British  fleet  on  an  errand.  He  was  detained  throughout  the  battle,  and  watched 
anxiously  the  damage  being  done.  The  following  morning,  as  he  looked  out 
from  the  British  ship  and  saw  the  Stars  and  Stripes  still  waving,  he  wrote 
"The  Star  Spangled  Banner." 


294  THE  WAR  OF   1812 

vigorously  and  thoroughly  for  their  own  defense.  General 
Ross  was  killed  in  the  attack  of  the  land  forces.  All  day, 
September  13,  the  fleet  bombarded  Fort  McHenry  at  the 
entrance  to  the  harbor,  but  the  spirited  resistance  on  land 
and  at  the  fort  discouraged  the  British.  They  withdrew,  and 
soon  left  the  Chesapeake  altogether. 

Battle  of  New  Orleans,  January  8,  1815.  —  Two  of  the 
expeditions  planned  by  the  EngHsh  government  for  18 14  had 
already  failed.  The  British,  like  the. Americans,  had  found 
that  the  invasion  of  a  foreign  country  is  a  most  difficult 
matter.  By  the  end  of  18 14  both  nations  were  weary  of  the 
costly  and  fruitless  war  and  ready  to  make  peace.  On 
Christmas  eve,  1814,  the  representatives  of  England  and 
the  United  States  agreed  to  terms  of  peace  at  a  meeting  at 
Ghent  in  Belgium.  It  was  February  11,  1815,  before  the 
good  news  could  be  carried  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  United 
States.  Just  one  week  before  this,  on  February  4,  the 
Americans  in  Washington  learned  that  a  great  battle,  the 
greatest  of  the  entire  war,  had  been  fought  at  New  Orleans. 

General  Pakenham,  brother-in-law  of  WeUington,  at  the 
head  of  an  army  of  9,000  veteran  soldiers,  supported  by  a 
large  fleet,  attacked  New  Orleans.  Andrew  Jackson  com- 
manded the  line  of  defense.  Nature  aided  Jackson's  army. 
Swamps,  canals,  and  the  river  divided  the  army  of  invasion 
and  made  it  hard  for  its  parts  to  work  together.  Besides, 
the  British  showed  the  same  contempt  for  American  marks- 
manship that  their  predecessors  had  at  Bunker  Hill,  and 
charged  straight  across  an  open  field  against  Jackson's  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee  riflemen  shooting  from  behind  high 
breastworks.  These  frontiersmen,  hunters,  and  Indian 
fighters  struck  the  enemy  down,  said  an  eye-witness,  ''like 
blades  of  grass  beneath  the  scythe  of  the  mower."  An  expe- 
rienced British  officer  described  the  fire  as  ''the  most  mur- 
derous and  destructive  fire  of  all  arms  ever  poured  upon  a 


RESULTS  OF  THE  WAR  295 

column."     The  British  left  700  dead  on  the  field,   among 
them  General  Pakenham.     Their  total  losses  were  2,600. 

Results  of  the  War  of  1812.  —  The  treaty  of  peace  settled 
none  of  the  questions  for  which  the  two  nations  had  gone  to 
war.  These  had  settled  themselves  before  the  war  ended. 
When  the  greater  war  in  Europe  was  over,  England  had  no 
reason  to  press  American  seamen  into  service,  nor  had  either 
England  or  France  any  reason  to  seize  American  goods. 
Although  the  war  cost  a  great  deal  in  men  and  money,  it  had 
some  good  results.  England  was  ready  to  treat  the  United 
States  with  greater  respect,  jlistorians  have  said  that  the 
wax^majk^d  Xb.e  beginning  of_commerciarmdependence  for 
thejJnjted  States,  ajid^Jmve_di^refore2c^^ 
\^ar_of_independence. ' ' 

Otiier  Questions  Settled.  —  Within  a  few  years  after  the 
close  of  the  war  several  iniportant  agreements  were  made  by 
the  two  countries.  In  181 7  they  agreed  to  reduce  the  number 
of  government  ships  on  the  Great  Lakes,  keeping  only  a  few 
small  vessels  to  enforce  the  laws  about  fishing.  It  was  a  fortu- 
nate arrangement,  for  it  relieved  both  nations  of  great  expense 
and  removed  the  dangers  which  come  from  the  presence  of 
rival  fleets  in  the  same  waters.  The  following  year,  chiefly 
through  the  efforts  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  then  Secretary  of 
State,  England  agreed,  as  she  had  in  1783,  to  allow  American 
fishermen  to  fish  in  the  waters  on  the  coast  of  Labrador  and 
Newfoundland,  and  to  dry  on  shore  the  fish  they  caught. 
This  was  a  privilege  of  great  value  to  New  England  fisher- 
men. At  the  same  time  the  boundary  from  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  was  fixed  at  the  forty-ninth 
parallel.  Beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains  both  nations  claimed 
the  whole  of  Oregon  and  agreed  for  a  while  to  hold  it  as  a 
common  territory. 

The  end  of  the  War  of  181 2,  and  the  settlement  of  the  other 
differences  with  England,  left  the  American  people  free  to  turn 


296  THE    WAR    OF    1812 

away  from  European  affairs  and  to  devote  themselves 
mainly  to  the  development  of  new  industries  and  to  the 
settlement  of  their  vast  interior  lands. 

QUESTIONS 

1,  What  advantage  had  England  in  the  war  with  the  United  States?  What 
made  her  advantage  less  than  it  would  have  been  at  another  time? 

2.  What  was  the  chief  part  of  the  plan  of  the  United  States  for  the  war? 
Why  were  many  Canadians  opposed  to  the  United  States? 

3.  What  obstacles  did  Hull's  expedition  meet?  What  did  the  British 
gain  in  the  first  year  of  the  war?  Were  the  armies  of  the  United  States  any 
more  successful  in  invading  Canada  during  1813  and  1814? 

4,  Describe  Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie.  Did  the  raid  on  Toronto  benefit 
the  United  States?  Why  was  Macdonough's  victory  important  for  the  United 
States? 

,  5.  Why  could  not  the  United  States  do  as  much  on  the  high  seas?  Tell 
the  stories  of  the  Constitution  and  of  the  Essex. 

6.  How  did  the  blockade  affect  the  United  States?  W^hy  was  the  war 
unpopular? 

7.  What  veterans  did  England  send  to  the  United  States?  Describe  the 
British  expedition  against  Washington  and  Baltimore.  What  did  the  expedi-, 
tion  accomplish? 

8.  What  battle  took  place  after  the  treaty  of  peace  was  agreed  to?  Why 
did  Jackson  defeat  the  British? 

9.  Why  were  the  causes  of  the  war  not  settled  in  the  treaty  of  peace?  What 
important  friendly  agreements  did  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  make 
soon  after  the  War  of  181 2? 

REVIEW   EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  the  migration  of  the  loyalists  to  Canada  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  the  effect  on  the  conquest  of  Canada  in  181 2. 

2.  State  the  difficulties  which  the  new  republic  had  with  other  nations 
from  1783  to  1814. 

3.  State  what  friendly  agreements  the  United  States  entered  into  with 
England  in  1794,  181 7,  and  1818. 

4.  Did  the  Revolution  have  the  same  effect  on  American  foreign  trade  as 
did  the  War  of  181 2? 

Important  Dates: 

181 2.   The  war  with  England  begins. 
1 8 14.   A  treaty  of  peace  ends  the  war. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

NEW   WORK   AND    NEW   ROUTES 

One  Consequence  of  War.  —  The  interruption  of  foreign 
trade  by  the  Embargo  and  Non-Intercourse  Acts  as  well  as 
by  the  War  of  1812  forced  Americans  to  supply  most  of  their 
own  needs.  For  several  years  they  could  not  obtain  the 
cottons,  woolens,  articles  of  iron  and  steel,  and  many  other 
things  which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  buy  in  England. 


Power  Looms  in  an  English  Mill,  1820 

They,  therefore,  built  more  iron  mills,  set  up  more  spinning 
machines,  and  wove  more  cloth.  They  used  nine  times  as 
many  bales  of  cotton  in  18 15  as  in  18 10.  The  number  of 
spindles  increased  from  80,000  to  500,000.  Merchants  and 
shipowners,  whose  business  was  ruined  by  the  war,  began  to 
build  factories.  In  181 5  there  were  over  100  cotton  mills 
within  thirty  miles  of  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  Weaving, 
however,  was  still  done  on  hand-looms. 


298  NEW  WORK  AND   NEW  ROUTES 

A  Complete  Mill.  —  In  18 14  Francis  Lowell,  who  had 
visited  England  in  order  to  examine  the  power-looms,  returned 
to  the  United  States  and  succeeded  in  constructing  similar 
machinery  in  a  cotton  factory  in  Waltham,  Massachusetts. 
Lowell's  factory  differed  from  the  EngHsh  factories  by  bring- 
ing under  one  roof  all  the  new  machines  for  spinning,  weaving, 
and  finishing,  so  that  they  could  be  run  by  the  same  power. 
Other  men  built  factories  like  Lowell's.  The  machinery  was 
soon  adapted  to  spinning,  weaving,  and  finishing  linen  and 
woolen  goods.  While  New  England  was  the  center  of  the 
new  industries,  many  were  located  in  other  states.  These 
factories,  like  the  EngUsh  mills,  were  generally  run  by  water- 
power,  but  one  in  New  York  was  run  by  a  steam-engine. 

Iron,  Steel,  and  Coal.  —  The  multipKcation  of  iron  and 
steel  mills  increased  the  need  of  coal.  The  mining  of  bitumi- 
nous or  soft  coal  had  been  carried  on  about  Pittsburgh  for 
nearly  twenty  years.  Already  the  town  was  being  described 
as  a  ''smoky  city."  Among  the  inventions  used  there  was  a 
machine  which  would  cut  and  head  nails.  The  products  of 
the  mills  of  western  Pennsylvania,  including  nails,  hinges, 
locks,  and  tools  of  all  kinds,  were  loaded  on  barges  and  floated 
down  to  New  Orleans.  Kettles  also  were  sold  to  the  sugar 
planters  of  Louisiana. 

The  steel  mills  of  eastern  Pennsylvania  and  the  other  states 
on  the  coast  had  relied  upon  England  for  supplies  of  soft  coal. 
Fortunately,  when  the  war  cut  off  their  trade  with  England,  a 
grate  was  invented  which  created  draft  enough  to  burn  anthra- 
cite. Up  to  that  time  anthracite,  called  stone  coal,  had  been 
regarded  as  worthless  except  as  gravel  for  sidewalks.  The 
mill  owners  now  began  to  use  it  in  melting  iron  ores. 

What  Machines  accomplished.  —  As  mills  were  built  and 
improved  machines  set  up,  the  amount  of  work  accomplished 
was  increased  enormously.  For  example,  one  person  running 
a  mule  spinner  which  carried  3,000  spindles  could  spin  as 


FROM  HOUSEHOLD  TO  FACTORY 


299 


much  thread  as  3,000  women  40  or  50  years  before.  A 
weaver  with  a  power-loom  could  make  1,600  yards  of  cotton 
cloth  in  a  week,  while  he  could  make  only  40  with  a  hand- 
loom.  One  consequence  of  the  change  was  the  rapid  reduc- 
tion of  prices.  Cotton  sheeting  in  18 15  was  40  cents  a  yard, 
while  fourteen  years  later  it  was  8i  cents.  Similar  changes 
were  going  on  in  other  manufactures  where  machines  and  new 
methods  were  introduced. 


Spinning  Room  in  an  American  Mill,  1830 
From  an  old  print 

From  Household  to  Factory.  —  The  transfer  of  industries 
from  the  household  and  the  httle  shop,  which  had  begun  with 
the  building  of  Slater's-  first  mill  and  the  invention  of  the 
cotton-gin,  still  went  on  slowly,  but  surely.  The  spinning- 
wheel,  the  hand-loom,  and  the  household  forge  were  used  less 
and  less  and  were  finally  abandoned.  Within  twenty  or  thirty 
years  after  the  War  of  181 2,  home-made  products  gave  way 
almost  everywhere  to  articles  made  in  mills  and  factories. 
If  women  and  girls  needed  employment  outside  of  the  home, 
they  must  seek  it  in  the  mills.  Indeed,  they  were  the  ones 
who  ran  the  spinning  frames  and  the  looms,  the  men  doing 
the  heavier  work  about  the  mills.     Although  each  machine 


300  NEW  WORK  AND  NEW  ROUTES 

did  the  work  of  many  hands,  no  hand  need  long  be  without 
employment,  because  the  mills  were  built  so  rapidly,  increas- 
ing from  four  in  1805  to  795  in  183 1.  What  was  true  of 
the  cotton  industry  was  true  also  of  other  industries.  The 
things  which  were  produced  found  a  ready  sale,  since  the 
prices  were  lower,  and  people  used  larger  quantities.  More- 
over, the  population  was  growing  rapidly,  and  new  markets 
were  being  opened  every  day. 

More  Workers  needed.  —  The  demand  for  wool,  flax, 
cotton,  coal,  and  iron  gave  chances  of  work  everywhere  to 
willing  hands.  The  mills  called  the  young  men  and  women 
to  the  towns.  The  farms  and  fields  called  other  young  men 
and  women  almost  as  loudly,  for  the  townspeople  must  be 
fed,  the  sheep  must  be  cared  for,  and  the  cotton  and  flax 
raised.  The  new  work  made  many  opportunities  for  immi- 
grants.    Their  number  soon  began  to  increase  greatly. 

The  need  of  more  workers  had  one  unfortunate,  conse- 
quence. Cotton  growing  required  a  very  large  number  of  the 
cheapest  or  least  skilled  laborers.  The  increased  demand 
for  cotton,  therefore,  fixed  on  the  southern  plantations  more 
firmly  than  ever  another  sort  of  labor  —  that  of  slaves.^ 

English  Manufacturers  and  the  American  Market.  —  When 
peace  came  the  EngHsh  manufacturers  tried  to  regain  the  trade 
with  the  United  States  which  the  war  had  cut  off.  They 
saw  that  American  manufacturers  had  taken  their  places  in 
making  goods  for  American  purchasers,  and  they  now  resolved 
to  sell  their  goods  at  such  low  prices  as  to  ruin  the  business 
of  the  American  manufacturers.  A  prominent  member  of 
parliament  explained  that  it  was  well  worth  while  to  incur  a 
loss  on  the  first  exportation  in  order  to  stifle  in  the  cradle 

^  Several  states  forbade  the  importation  of  slaves,  and  in  1807  Congress 
also  tried  to  put  a  stop  to  the  slave-trade.  So  great,  however,  was  the 
demand  for  slaves  on  the  plantations,  that  the  government  could  not  always 
enforce  the  laws  which  prohibited  the  bringing  of  slaves  into  the  United  States. 


THE  AMERICAN   MARKET  301 

those  rising  manufactures  in  the  United  States."  This  plan 
partly  accounts  for  the  enormous  sales  to  American  mer- 
chants in  18 1 6.  American  imports  in  that  year  were  valued 
at  $147,000,000,  while  during  the  last  year  of  the  war  they 
were  worth  only  $13,000,000. 

The  new  or  "infant"  industries  of  the  United  States  were 
threatened  with  ruin.  The  eastern  iron  works  were  obliged 
to  shut  down.  The  Pittsburgh  mills  could  go  on,  because  the 
cost  of  sending  English  goods  across  the  mountains  raised 
their  price.  The  cotton  and  woolen  factories  of  the  East 
were  also  in  danger.  In  their  distress  the  mill  owners  peti- 
tioned Congress  for  more  ''protection."  Congress  accordingly 
passed  the  Tariff  of  18 16,  which  raised  the  rates  provided  in 
the  earlier  tariffs  and  added  duties  on  goods  which  had  not 
been  ''protected." 

While  the  EngUsh  wished  to  sell  their  manufactures  to  the 
Americans,  they  did  not  wish  to  buy  grain  of  the  Americans. 
In  181 5  the  English  parliament  passed  new  "corn"  or  grain 
laws,  preventing  the  importation  of  grain  until  the  price  of 
English  grain  was  $2.50  a  bushel.  Each  country  arranged 
its  tariff  with  the  aim  of  selling  to  its  neighbors  without  being 
obHged  to  buy  from  them.  They  were  all  "protectionists." 
In  the  Tariff  of  18 16,  therefore.  Congress  did  what  the  legis- 
latures or  royal  councils  of  Great  Britain  and  all  European 
countries  were  doing. 

Need  for  Roads  and  Canals.  —  With  the  increase  of  manu- 
factures and  trade  and  the  rapid  advance  of  the  population 
into  the  Mississippi  Valley,  Americans  felt  the  need  of  more 
roads  and  bridges  and  canals,  and,  in  fact,  of  every  possible 
means  of  communication.  The  problem  was  difficult,  because 
the  new  states  could  not  raise  great  sums  of  money  by  taxa- 
tion, and  the  United  States  at  the  time  was  loaded  down 
with  war  debts.  The  western  farmers  were  willing  to  have 
the  government  protect  the  manufacturers  with  the  tariff, 


302 


NEW  WORK  AND   NEW  ROUTES 


if  it  would  in  turn  build  roads  and  canals  over  which 
they  could  afford  to  send  their  products  to  the  coast  in  ex- 
change for  the  goods  that  they  needed  on  the  frontier.  This 
was  the  reason  why  the  people  demanded  that  the  govern-" 
ment  undertake  ^^  internal  improvements." 

The  Invention  of  the  Steamboat;  Robert  Fulton.  —  For 
twenty  years  men  had  been  trying  to  plan  a  boat  which 
could  use  Watt's  steam-engine  as  its  motive  power.     In  1807 

Robert  Fulton,  the 
son  of  an  Irish  im- 
migrant, built  the 
Clermont,  on  which 
he  fitted  up  a 
steam-engine  to 
run  a  pair  of  side- 
wheels.  His  neigh- 
bors called  it  ''Ful- 
ton's Folly,"  but 
to  their  astonish- 
ment it  started  off 
and  plowed  its  way  up  the  Hudson  River.  It  reached 
Albany,  150  miles  away,  in  32  hours.  Such  a  journey 
proved  that  Fulton's  invention  was  a  success.  The  next 
year  the  Clermont  made  the  voyage  on  the  Hudson  regu- 
larly two  or  three  times  a  week. 

Steamboats  soon  came  into  general  use.  In  181 1  one  built 
in  Pittsburgh  made  the  long  voyage  down  the  Ohio  and 
the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans.  Four  years  later,  in  1815, 
another  succeeded  in  making  the  voyage  up-stream  against 
the  strong  current.  It  then  required  25  days  to  go  from 
New  Orleans  to  Louisville.  In  18 19  steamboats  ascended 
the  swifter  current  of  the  Missouri  River  far  on  the  route  of 
Lewis  and  Clark.  In  1819,  also,  the  Savannah,  using  both 
sails  and  steam-engine,  crossed  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 


The  "Clermont' 


INVENTION  OF  THE   STEAMBOAT 


303 


From  this  time  on  steamboats  multiplied  rapidly,  espe- 
cially in  the  West.  Twenty-one  were  built  on  the  Ohio  River 
in  18 1 9.  A  year  later  there  were  71  on  the  Ohio,  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and   the  other  western  rivers.     As  yet  only  four 


The  "Savannah" 
The  first  steamship  that  crossed  the  Atlantic 

steamboats  had  been  built  on  the  Great  Lakes.  Travel, 
emigration,  and  trade  had  not  begun  to  follow  that  route. 

Advantages  of  the  River  Towns.  —  With  an  ocean  port  at 
New  Orleans  the  towns  on  the  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
had  a  great  advantage  over  the  settlements  on  the  shores 
of  the  Lakes.  These  northern  settlements  were  difficult  to 
reach,  for  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
British.  Chicago  and  Milwaukee  were  still  mere  stations  for 
fur  traders.  Detroit,  Cleveland,  and  Buffalo  were  only 
villages.  The  region  from  the  Mohawk  Valley  to  the  east- 
ern end  of  Lake  Erie  was  a  wilderness. 

The  river  towns,  on  the  other  hand,  were  on  the  great  high- 
ways from  the  East  to  the  West  and  from  the  northern  West 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  steamboat  shortened  the  dis- 
tances. Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  and  St.  Louis 
became  large  and  prosperous  trading  centers.  To  St.  Louis 
were  brought  the  furs  of  the  new  Northwest.  Louisville  was 
the  market  for  Kentucky  tobacco  and  hemp.     At  Cincinnati 


304 


NEW  WORK  AND  NEW  ROUTES 


a  flourishing  meat-packing  business  was  established.  Until 
the  War  of  1812,  droves  of  4,000  or  5,000  hogs  had  been 
driven  across  the  mountains  to  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore, 
feeding  on  the  nuts  and  acorns  of  the  forests  by  the  way. 
Now  cattle  and  hogs  were  kept  on  the  feeding-grounds  of 
Ohio  until  they  were  ready  for  the  packers  of  Cincinnati. 
New  Orleans  was  the  port  where  most  of  the  products  of 
the  West  were  marketed. 


A  Toll-Gate  and  Bridge 


Turnpikes  and  Bridges.  —  In  the  West,  wagon  roads  were 
almost  unknown  except  in  a  few  older  settlements.  The  old 
Indian  trails  were  used,  but  few  travelers  tried  to  go  far  from 
the  rivers.  In  the  East,  the  local  governments  and  private 
companies  had  built  many  paved  roads  or  turnpikes,  stretch- 
ing out  from  the  chief  towns  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel. 
Toll-gates  were  placed  at  frequent  intervals  to  take  toll  from 
the  traveler  in  order  to  pay  the  cost  of  repairs  and  a  profit 
to  the  builders.  The  old  fords  along  the  way  were  bridged 
with  stone  arches  and  the  swamps  crossed  by  logs  or  planks 
laid  side  by  side.^ 

The  National  Road,  1818.  —  Neither  local  governments 
nor  private  companies  could  undertake  the  costly  enterprise 
of  a  road  across  the  mountains.     Eastern  merchants  were 

^  A  Scotch  engineer,  Macadam,  had  already  shown  how  to  build  solid,  well- 
drained  roads.     His  plans  were  followed  by  American  road-builders. 


THE  NATIONAL  ROAD 


305 


alarmed  at  the  advantage  which  the  steamboat  gave  to  their 
rivals  at  New  Orleans.  It  cost  much  more  to  send  goods 
over  the  mountains  than  from  New  Orleans.  Besides,  states- 
men of  the  day  were  afraid  that  the  loose-jointed  republic 
would  break  apart  at  the  mountains. 

George  Washington  had  taken  an  interest  in  a  great  wagon 
road  across  the  AUeghanies  and  had  repeatedly  urged  that 
one  should  be  built.  In  18 18  Congress  finally  carried  out 
Washington's  plan,  even  following  the  trail  that  he  had  blazed 


Route  of  the  National  Road,  1812-1840 

for  a  part  of  the  way.  In  1818  the  National  Road,  carefully 
graded*  and  covered  with  crushed  stone,  reached  from  Cum- 
berland on  the  Potomac  to  Wheeling  on  the  Ohio,  and  was 
later  extended  westward  as  far  as  Vandalia,  in  Illinois. 

Stage  Coaches.  —  The '  new  roads,  and  especially  the 
National  Road,  made  it  easier  for  emigrants  to  reach  the 
West,  and  cheaper  for  merchants  to  transport  their  goods. 
Better  roads  were  followed  by  finer  and  swifter  stage-coaches 
for  the  traveler.  Daily  stage-coaches  set  out  for  the  West  or 
ran  between  the  main  towns.  People  at  that  time  marveled 
at  their  swiftness.  They  now  made  the  journey  from  Boston 
to  New  York  in  two  days,  and  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia 
in  fifteen  hours.  The  government  mail  coaches,  by  running 
day  and  night  on  the  new  National  Road,  made  the  journey 
from  Cumberland  to  Wheeling  in  exactly  twenty-four  hours. 
Travelers  in  the  ordinary  passenger  coaches  could  not  go 
so  rapidly.     Six  days  was  the  usual  time  from  Philadelphia 


3o6 


NEW  WORK  AND  NEW  ROUTES 


to  Pittsburgh.  Horses  were  changed  every  few  miles,  and 
the  drivers  boasted  that  the  change  was  made  before  the 
coach  stopped  rocking.  Freight  was  carried  between  dis- 
tant cities  by  large  Conestoga  wagons,  each  drawn  by  six 
powerful  horses.^ 

Erie   Canal,    1825.  —  The  building  of  the  National  Road 
helped  the  ports  of  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore  far  more 


"Conestoga"  Wagon  for  carrying  Freight 


than  New  York.  It  also  increased  the  advantage  which  the 
river  towns  of  the  West  possessed  over  the  settlements  along 
the  shores  of  the  Lakes.  De  Witt  Clinton  and  other  pubKc- 
spirited  men  resolved  to  guard  the  future  of  New  York  City, 
open  western  New  York  state,  and  gain  a  route  to  the  Lakes, 
and  through  them  to  the  Northwest. 

With  such  objects  in  mind  Clinton  persuaded  the  legislature 
of  New  York  to  raise  the  money  for  a  canal  from  Albany  to 
Buffalo.  To  build  a  "big  ditch,"  as  CHnton's  enemies  called 
it,  360  miles  long,  by  means  of  spades  and  wheel-barrows, 
seemed  a  wild  scheme,  but  the  plan  won  the  support  of  the  peo- 
ple and,  in  1825,  after  eight  years  of  work,  it  was  completed. 

1  The  name  "  Conestoga  "  was  given  because  they  were  first  used  by  the 
thrifty  farmers  in  the  valley  of  the  Conestoga  River,  in  eastern  Pennsylvania, 
for  carrying  their  farm  products  to  market. 


CANALS 


307 


It  was  a  great  event  for  New  York  City,  and  for  the  people 
along  the  way,  but  most  of  all  for  the  people  of  the  West. 
It  had  formerly  cost  them  $32  a  ton  to  send  their  freight 
100  miles  by  wagon.  The  canal  carried  the  same  load  for  $1. 
A  stream  of  emigrants  began  to  move  by  the  canal  into  the 
region  on  the  Lakes.  They  were  as  certain  to  find  a  good 
market  for  their  products  as  the  farmers  on  the  rivers. 


Map  of  the  Erie  Canal 

Other  Canals.  —  Ohio,  encouraged  by  the  example  of  New 
York,  built  a  system  of  canals  connecting  the  Ohio  River  and 
Lake  Erie.  Ports  like  Cleveland  became  distributing  cen- 
ters for  products  from  the  East,  brought  by  the  Erie  Canal 
and  Lake  Erie.  The  farm  products  of  Ohio  and  northern 
Indiana  wefe  forwarded  to  the  East  from  these  ports. 
Steamboats  were  multiplied  on  the  Lakes  as  they  had  been 
multiplied  on  the  western  rivers. 

Philadelphia  was  alarmed  by  the  success  of  the  Erie  Canal 
and  attempted  to  rival  it  by  building  a  canal  to  Pittsburgh. 
Part  of  the  way  the  freight  was  hauled  across  the  mountains, 
being  pulled  up  and  let  down  incHned  railways  by  stationary 
engines  placed  at  the  highest  point. 


3o8 


NEW  WORK  AND   NEW  ROUTES 


Every  state  now  wanted  a  net-work  of  canals  to  reach  dis- 
tricts far  from  rivers  and  lakes.  Congress  gave  Kberally  to 
aid  some  of  these  projects,  offering  large  sections  of  the 
public  lands,  by  the  sale  of  which  the  needed  money  might 
be  furnished. 


Canal  Passenger  Packet 


Union  of  East  and  West.  —  These  new  routes  of  travel  and 
trade  not  only  enriched  the  settlements  along  the  way,  the 
merchants  on  the  coast,  and  the  farmers  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  but  they  strengthened  the  bonds  of  union  between 
the  West  and  the  East.  Washington's  hope  was  finally 
realized. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  interruption  of  foreign  trade?  What  inven- 
tion was  introduced  into  the  United  States  as  a  consequence?  How  did  the 
American  factories  differ  from  the  Enghsh? 

2.  What  changes  took  place  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry? 

3.  How  did  the  new  machinery  affect  the  amount  of  work  done  by 
laborers?  The  price  of  goods?  The  classes  of  laborers?  The  demand  for 
slaves? 

4.  How  did  the  English  manufacturers  try  to  ruin  their  American  rivals? 
Why  were  the  Pittsburgh  mills  not  injured?  How  did  Congress  help  the 
manufacturers?  What  was  the  aim  of  the  various  nations  in  arranging  their 
tariffs? 

5.  What  gave  rise  to  demands  for  better  means  for  traveling  and  carry- 
ing freight?  Why  was  the  problem  a  difficult  one?  Why  did  the  western 
farmers  expect  the  United  States  to  build  roads  and  canals? 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 


309 


6.  Why  was  Fulton's  invention  timely?  Where  did  steamboats  find  a 
great  work  to  do? 

7.  Why  did  the  river  towns  of  the  West  have  an  advantage  over  those  on 
the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes?  How  did  New  Orleans,  St.  Louis,  Louisville, 
and  Cincinnati  obtain  a  leadership  in  trade? 

8.  How  did  many  places  secure  roads  and  bridges?  Why  were  the  people 
of  the  East  anxious  to  have  a  road  across  the  Alleghany  Mountains?  How  was 
the  National  Road  built?  What  useful  purpose  did  it  serve  when  completed? 
What  improvements  were  made  in  the  stage-coach  lines? 

9.  What  cities  did  the  National  Road  help  the  most?  What  did  De  Witt 
Clinton  persuade  New  York  to  do?  Why  was  his  "big  ditch"  a  great  under- 
taking? 

10.   What  were  some  of  the  results  of  building  the  Erie  Canal?     What  other 
canals  were  soon  built?     What  effect  had  these  canals? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Are  there  any  occupations  of  the  home  to-day  being  crowded  out  by 
inventions  and  new  business  methods? 

2.  Which  countries  to-day  have  a  "protective"  tariff  and  which  do  not? 

3.  Find  out  why  some  cities  have  grown  more  prosperous  than  others. 

4.  If  there  is  an  old  canal  in  the  neighborhood,  learn  about  its  history. 

Important  Dates: 

1807.   Robert  Fulton  invents  a  steamboat. 

1 8 14.   Francis  Lowell  introduces  the  power-loom  and  the  new  kind  of 

factories  into  the  United  States. 
1818.   The  National  Road  is  completed  from  Cumberland  to  Wheeling. 
1825.  The  Erie  Canal  is  finished  from  Albany  to  Buffalo. 


An  Old  Time  Stage-Co ach 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE    MARCH    OF   POPULATION   WESTWARD 

Immigration  after  the  War.  —  The  same  years  which  saw 
the  growth  of  American  manufactures  and  the  opening  of 
new  routes  for  trade  and  travel,  saw  a  great  tide  of  immigra- 
tion coming  toward  the  shores  of  America,  and  especially 
toward  the  fertile  regions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  They 
saw  also  an  important  extension  of  American  territory  and 
influence. 

From  the  close  of  the  Revolution  to  the  end  of  the  War  of 
1812,  that  is  from  1783  to  181 5,  comparatively  few  came  to 
America.  The  great  wars  kept  men  from  leaving  Europe, 
drawing  them  into  armies  or  navies  or  into  the  employments 
which  war  creates.  With  the  return  of  peace  in  18 15,  the 
tide  of  immigration  set  in  again.  It  was  small  at  first,  ten  or 
twelve  thousand  a  year,  but  the  number  steadily  increased. 

Not  only  did  the  opportunities  in  America  attract  immi- 
grants, but  poor  people  found  it  hard  to  make  a  living  in 
Europe.  The  wars  left  a  heavy  burden  of  taxation.  Sol- 
diers and  sailors,  dismissed  from  the  armies  and  out  of  work, 
crowded  every  occupation.  Wages  were  very  low.  The 
peasant  farmers,  in  Germany  especially,  found  that  they 
must  still  pay  dues  to  the  nobles. 

The  immigrants  of  this  period  were  mostly  from  England 
and  Ireland,  although  a  few  came  from  Germany.  The  Irish 
were  chiefly  peasants,  but  in  the  United  States  most  of  them 
worked  in  factories  or  did  the  hard  out-door  work  of  the  coast 
towns.  Englishmen  who  understood  a  trade  quickly  found 
employment  in  similar  trades.     Many  English  and  German 


THE  WESTWARD   MOVEMENT  AFTER   1812      311 

immigrants  were  farmers  and  were  eager  to  obtain  land  in 
the  West. 
The   Westward    Movement   after    the    War    of    181 2.  — 

Besides  the  new  immigrants  from  Europe  who  sought  lands 
in  the  West,  many  people  moved  from  the  older  settlements. 
A  European  traveler  in  181 7  says  that  on  the  roads  leading 
across  the  mountains  he  was  seldom  out  of  sight  of  family 
groups.  Each  was  traveling  as  its  means  permitted.  Some 
went  in  stage-coaches  or  their  own  covered  wagons.     Many 


Scene  on  the  Ohio  River 
The  main  highway  of  the  early  West 

times  whole  families,  because  of  poverty,  set  out  on  foot, 
carrying  on  their  backs  or  on  a  Hght  wagon,  dragged  along  by 
the  father  and  sons,  the  few  articles  which  they  would  need 
on  the  way. 

The  blockade  of  the  Atlantic  coast  during  the  last  year  of 
the  War  of  181 2  made  earning  a  living  so  hard  that  many 
started  for  the  lands  which  Congress  offered  for  sale  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  Consequently  the  movement  of  people 
toward  the  frontier  had  never  ceased.  After  the  war  closed, 
it  became  so  great  that  certain  eastern  towns  were  alarmed, 
fearing  that  they  would  lose  their  inhabitants. 

New  Frontiers.  —  By  this  time  the  frontier  had  moved 
still  farther  westward.     Indiana  and  IlKnois  in  the  North- 


312 


THE   MARCH  OF  POPULATION  WESTWARD 


west,  and  Alabama  and  Mississippi  in  the  Southwest,  were 
most  often  the  goal  of  the  land  seekers.  The  lands  on  the 
Missouri  were  occupied  by  the  vanguard  of  the  "army."  In 
182 1  Congress  reduced  the  price  of  the  land  from  $2.00  to 
$1.25  an  acre,  so  that  a  thrifty  man  could  soon  save  enough 
to  buy  a  farm.  The  majority  of  the  settlers  on  the  new 
frontiers  were  poor,  and  some  of  them  did  not  trouble  them- 
selves to  obtain  a  right  to  the  soil.     They  "squatted"  on 


Chicago  in  1820 
From  an  old  print 


lands  far  from  settlements,  hoping  to  remain  undisturbed 
until  they  earned  enough  to  buy  the  land. 

New  States.  —  The  rivers  were  the  highways  to  the  West 
until  the  Erie  Canal  was  opened.  People  who  intended  to 
settle  in  Indiana  or  IlUnois  commonly  traveled  to  the  Ohio 
River  and  floated  down  or  took  a  steamboat  to  the  village 
nearest  the  lands  they  expected  to  purchase.  The  result  was 
that  the  southern  part  of  these  territories  was  settled  first. 
Another  reason  for  this  was  that  many  of  the  settlers  came  from 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Many  Kentuckians  and  Tennes- 
seans  also  moved  south  into  Mississippi  and  Alabama.  These 
western  territories  grew  so  rapidly  that  four  of  them  were 


-T^Y;^; 


LIFE  OF  THE   SETTLER  313 

soon  admitted  into  the  Union;  Indiana  in  18 16,  Mississippi 
in  181 7,  Illinois  in  18 18,  and  Alabama  in  18 19.  Louisiana 
had  become  a  state  in  181 2. 

The  Lincobis   and  Davises   as  Pioneers.  ^-  The  story  of 
Abraham  Lincoln  and  of  Jefferson  Davis  tells  something  of 
the  two  streams  of  pioneers.     Both  were  born  in  Kentucky 
near  the  center  of  the  state, 
Lincoln  in  1809  and  Davis 
in  1808.     Lincoln's  father 
took  his  family  to  Indiana, 
but   soon  moved   on  into 
Illinois.    The  Davises  went 
to  Louisiana,  only  to  leave 
almost  immediately  for  the 

newer  settlements  in  Mis-         '^'"''^ZZ'Z^l^S:''^'' 
sissippi. 

Life  of  the  Settler.  —  In  the  new  region  young  Lincoln 
Kved  the  life  of  the  frontier  boy.  He  watched  his  father 
build  a  one-room  log-cabin,  which  was  left  for  a  long  time  with- 
out a  floor  or  a  door,  watched  him  make  the  rude  furniture 
from  rough  slabs  of  wood,  and  clear  the  first  patches  of  ground 
for  corn  and  potatoes.  He  learned  the  simple  pursuits  of 
the  farm  boy  —  to  drive  the  team,  to  handle  the  rude  plow, 
to  cut  wheat  with  a  sickle  and  thresh  it  with  a  flail,  and  finally 
fan  and  clean  it  in  the  wind.  Most  of  the  time  the  boy  spent 
in  clearing  fields  or  splitting  the  rails  used  in  making  the  zig- 
zag or  worm  fences.  When  there  was  nothing  to  be  done  at 
home,  he  worked  for  a  neighboring  settler,  earning  his  '^keep" 
and  25  cents  a  day. 

Life  in  the  West  in  Lincoln's  boyhood  was  almost  the  same 
as  it  had  been  on  each  new  frontier  since  the  founding  of 
Jamestown.  The  opportunity  to  obtain  an  education  was 
small.  If  the  settlers  could  afford  it,  they  started  a  school 
and   hired  a   teacher.     Lincoln  called  such  schools,  '^ABC 


314     THE  MARCH  OF  POPULATION  WESTWARD 


schools."  Court-houses  and  churches  were  as  rare  as  school 
buildings.  Judges  and  lawyers  rode  on  horseback  from 
settlement  to  settlement,  deciding  cases  sometimes  in  a  log- 
cabin,  sometimes  in  a  tavern.  The  preacher  also  rode  from 
church  to  church. 

An  ambitious  boy,  like  Lincoln,  turned  from  one  thing  to 

another,  each  a 
step  higher  than 
the  last.  Lincoln 
became  a  store- 
keeper, post-mas- 
ter, road  super- 
visor, lawyer, 
and  finally  a  law- 
maker. The  great 
office  that  he  was 
to  hold  in  1861 
was  still  in  the  dis- 
tant future.  Not  every  western  boy  had  the  character  and 
abihties  of  Lincoln,  but  each  had  an  opportunity  to  show 
what  was  in  him. 

A  Cotton  Plantation  of  Mississippi.  —  The  story  of  Jeffer- 
son Davis  is  also  interesting.  His  father  was  a  successful 
frontier  cotton  planter.  Young  Davis  was  sent  to  eastern 
schools  for  an  education.  After  a  brief  career  in  the  army, 
he  became  a  Mississippi  cotton  planter,  and  finally,  like 
Lincoln,  a  political  leader. 

In  one  respect  the  southern  frontier  differed  greatly  from 
the  northern.  The  demand  for  cotton  was  so  great  that  the 
new  lands  were  divided  into  large  plantations  rather  than 
small  farms.  The  cotton  planters  who  migrated  from  the 
older  communities  on  the  eastern  coast  or  in  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky,  brought  their  slave  laborers  with  them.  As  in 
the  older  settlements  in  the  Carolinas,  some  of  the  slaves 


Grinding  Corn  on  the  Frontier 


LIFE  IN  THE   SOUTH 


315 


became  carpenters,  bricklayers,  and  blacksmiths,  and  per- 
formed such  work  on  the  plantations.  The  more  intelHgent 
and  trustworthy  were  kept  as  house-servants  and  drivers. 
The  others  — •  men,  women,  and  older  children  —  were  sent 
to  the  fields.  Clearing  the  land,  planting,  hoeing,  picking, 
ginning,  and  baling 
cotton,  and  haul- 
ing it  to  market 
furnished  work  for 
many  laborers  all 
the  year  round„ 
There  were  few 
days  in  so  warm  a 
climate  when  out 
door  work  could 
not  be  done.  A 
bell  in  the  yard 
summoned  the 
slave  gangs  to 
work  at  sunrise,  and  the  day  ended  at  sundown.  Food  was 
given  to  them  from  the  common  storeroom.  White  over- 
seers and  trusty  negroes  directed  the  work. 

Three  things  made  the  plantation  system  successful:  (i) 
cheap  and  fertile  land,  (2)  slave  labor  at  moderate  cost,  and 
(3)  a  steady  market  for  cotton  in  the  North  and  in  Europe. 
Farmers  who  had  been  accustomed  to  do  their  own  work  were 
able  from  the  great  profits  of  their  cotton  to  buy  slaves  and 
so  become  planters.  Fabulous  stories  were  told  in  the  East 
of  the  riches  gained  from  planting  cotton  in  the  deep  fertile 
soil  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  A  multitude  of  emigrants 
fi:om  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia — planters  and  com- 
mon farmers  —  abandoned  worn-out  or  less  productive  lands 
for   the  new  frontier. 

Two  Streams  of  Migration  meet  in  Missouri.  —  The  two 


Negro  Quarters 
From  an  old  print 


3i6     THE  MARCH  OF  POPULATION  WESTWARD 

streams  of  migration,  the  northern  and  southern,  in  the  cease- 
less search  for  better  land,  did  not  stop  with  the  Mississippi. 
Both  came  together  in  Missouri,  where  planter  and  free 
farmer  mingled.  By  182 1  a  few  of  the  more  adventurous 
frontiersmen  went  on,  even  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the 
United  States,  to  the  Spanish  lands  in  Texas. 

The  Missouri  Compromise.  —  In  1820  Missouri  asked  to 
be  admitted  as  a  state.  This  raised  a  new  question.  Should 
the  states  formed  from  the  Louisiana  Purchase  be  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  states  in  which  slavery  should  be  allowed 
or  in  which  it  should  be  prohibited?  It  happened  that  in 
II  of  the  22  states,  slaves  formed  the  main  body  of  laborers 
and  that  in  the  other  1 1  there  were  either  very  few  slaves,  as 
in  Pennsylvania,  or  none  at  all,  as  in  Massachusetts.  Opinion 
in  the  Senate  was  evenly  divided,  11  states  on  each  side, 
though  in  the  House  of  Representatives  the  group  which 
wished  to  stop  the  spread  of  slavery  had  a  majority.  Which- 
ever group  should  win  a  new  state  would  of  course  gain  two 
votes  in  the  Senate.  The  dispute  was  finally  settled  on  this 
occasion  by  a  famous  bargain. 

The  Maine  settlers,  whose  territory  had  long  been  a  part  of 
Massachusetts,  wished  to  enter  the  Union  as  a  separate  state, 
and  to  do  so  without  allowing  slavery.  The  majority  of  the 
people  of  Missouri,  on  the  other  hand,  desired  to  make  slav- 
ery legal  within  their  own  boundaries.  Henry  Clay  suggested 
that  the  whole  matter  be  settled  by  allowing  Maine  and  Mis- 
souri to  have  their  way.  This  would  keep  the  two  factions 
in  the  Senate  equal,  twelve  states  belonging  to  each.  As 
for  the  rest  of  the  Louisiana  Territory,  except  Louisiana  and 
Missouri,  slavery  should  be  forbidden  in  all  that  portion 
north  of  the  parallel  of  36°  30'.  Nothing  was  said  about  the 
portion  south  of  the  line,  but  it  was  intended  that  it  should 
be  open  to  settlers  with  slaves. 

The  Missouri  Compromise,  as  the  bargain  was  called,  was 


THE   MISSOURI    COMPROMISE 


317 


3i8     THE  MARCH  OF  POPULATION  WESTWARD 

really  a  victory  for  those  who  wished  to  exclude  slavery 
from  the  territories.  Nine-tenths  of  Louisiana  Territory 
lay  north  of  36°  30'. 

The  Purchase  of  Florida,  1819. — In  1819  a  large  extension 
of  territory  where  slavery  was  already  recognized  partly  com- 
pensated the  South  for  what  it  lost  by  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise. Ever  since  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  in  1803  the 
United  States  had  tried  to  buy  Florida  from  Spain.  Finally, 
in  18 1 9,  an  agreement  was  reached,  and  the  United  States 
purchased  the  whole  territory  of  Florida  for  about  $5,000,000. 
The  United  States  agreed  at  the  same  time  not  to  claim  that 
Texas  was  a  part  of  the  old  Louisiana  Purchase;  that  is,  to 
regard  the  Sabine  River  as  the  boundary  between  its  own 
territory  and  Mexico.  The  purchase  meant  that  the  people 
of  the  South  possessed  the  river  courses  over  which  their 
commerce  travelled  to  the  sea.  Andrew  Jackson  had  a  short 
time  before  conquered  the  Creek  Indians  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  Georgia  and  opened  the  lands  to  settlement. 

Revolution  in  the  Spanish  Colonies.  —  Spain  was  the  more 
ready  to  give  up  Florida  as  she  was  fighting  hard  to  keep 
control  of  her  colonies  in  Mexico  and  South  America.  Rebel- 
lion had  broken  out  in  those  colonies  when  Napoleon  de- 
clared his  brother  king  of  Spain.  After  the  restoration  of 
Ferdinand  VII,  whom  Napoleon  had  held  a  prisoner,  the 
colonists  hoped  that  they  would  receive  more  rights  in  return 
for  their  loyalty.  The  Spanish  government,  however,  was  un- 
willing to  grant  to  the  colonists  the  privileges  that  the  Eng- 
lish colonists  had  enjoyed  before  the  War  of  Independence. 

The  result  was  new  revolutionary  outbreaks,  especially  in 
the  region  of  the  La  Plata  River,  now  called  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  and  in  northern  South  America,  now  divided 
between  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and 
Ecuador.  The  hero  of  the  south  was  San  Martin,  the  hero 
of  the  north   Simon  BoKvar.     The  story  of  San  Martin's 


RELATIONS  WITH  OTHER  NATIONS  319 

passage  of  the  Andes  to  free  Chili  reads  like  HannibaFs  march 
across  the  Alps  two  thousand  years  before.  A  still  finer  story 
tells  how  at  the  moment  of  triumph  the  liberator  of  the  Argen- 
tine, ChiU,  and  Peru  laid  down  his  office  in  order  not  to  offend 
Bolivar,  his  more  ambitious  rival,  who  had  just  reached  Peru. 
The  last  victory  over  Spain,  making  independence  certain, 
was  won  at  Ayacucho  on  December  9,  1824. 

By  this  time,  also,  Mexico  and  the  Central  American  states 
had  won  their  independence.  All  that  were  left  to  Spain  of 
her  great  colonial  empire  were  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands.  What  a  change  had  taken  place  within 
50  years!  In  1775  North  and  South  America  were  princi- 
pally made  up  of  English  and  Spanish  colonies.  By  1825 
these  colonies  had  been  transformed  into  repubhcs,  preserv- 
ing the  civilization  which  their  settlers  had  learned  from  the 
European  world,  but  free  to  manage  their  own  affairs  and  guard 
their  own  interests. 

The  Last  Resource  of  Spain.  —  In  1823  Ferdinand  VII 
of  Spain  had  hoped  that  the  governments  of  France,  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  Russia  would  interfere  before  it  was  too  late, 
and  save  his  colonies  in  America.  The  European  monarchs 
and  their  advisers  remembered  so  vividly  the  French  Revo- 
lution, and  all  that  they  had  suffered  from  the  Revolution- 
ary and  Napoleonic  armies,  that  they  were  anxious  to  put 
down  revolution  everywhere.  The  possibility  that  European 
governments  would  send  an  expedition  across  the  Atlantic 
excited  the  people  of  the  United  States.  Fortunately  the  Eng- 
Ksh  were  also  opposed  to  such  an  attempt,  chiefly  because 
they  enjoyed  a  thriving  trade  with  the  new  repubhcs,  which 
they  would  lose  if  Ferdinand  recovered  his  authority  over 
his  rebellious  colonies. 

Another  danger  seemed  to  threaten  the  Americans.  While 
the  English  had  been  occupied  in  exploring  and  setthng  Amer- 
ica, the  Russians  had  advanced  across  Siberia,  making  scat- 


320     THE  MARCH  OF  POPULATION  WESTWARD 


tered  settlements  as  they  went.  They  finally  reached  and 
crossed  Bering  Strait  and  moved  down  the  western  coast  of 
North  America,  eager  to  gain  the  fur  trade  of  the  far  North- 
west. They  claimed  a  part  of  the  Oregon  country  and  might 
compel  Spain  to  grant  them  California  in  return  for  help  in 
reconquering  the  Spanish  colonies. 

Just  then,  George  Canning,  one  of  the  chief  ministers  of 

England,  suggested  that  England 
and  the  United  States  join  in  a 
declaration  ''in  the  face  of  the 
world"  that  they  would  oppose 
the  plans  of  the  European  mon- 
archs  for  the  reconquest  of  Span- 
ish America.  James  Monroe  was 
President  of  the  United  States, 
having  been  elected,  practically 
without  opposition,  in  1817  and 
again  in  182 1.  John  Quincy 
Adams,  his  Secretary  of  State, 
urged  that  the  United  States 
make  its  declaration  separately,  "rather  than  come  in  as  a 
cock-boat  in  the  wake  of  a  British  man-of-war."  His  opinion 
was  adopted  by  the  President. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine,  1823.  —  Canning  sent  word  to 
France  that  Great  Britain  would  oppose  any  plan  to  subdue 
Spanish  America.  This  made  the  plan  impossible,  for  Great 
Britain  controlled  the  sea  as  completely  as  she  had  after 
Nelson's  great  victory  in  1805.  W^hen  Congress  met  in 
December,  Monroe  made  the  American  declaration,  which 
showed  the  European  schemers  that  they  would  find  diffi- 
culties on  the  land,  even  if  they  succeeded  in  crossing  the  sea. 
He  said  that  the  United  States  would  resist  any  attempt  to 
oppress  or  change  the  government  of  any  free  republic  in 
America.     He  also  said,  with  the  Russians  in  mind,  that  the 


James  Monroe 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES  321 

American  continents  were  no  longer  open  for  colonization  by 
any  European  governments.  He  did  not  intend,  however,  to 
meddle  with  any  European  colonies  which,  like  Canada,  were 
still  left  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Spain  was  soon  obliged 
to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  the  Spanish  American 
repubhcs,  and  Russia  agreed  in  1824  not  to  extend  her  Alas- 
kan territories  south  of  the  parallel  54°  40^ 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  were  there  few  immigrants  to  the  United  States  from  1783  to  1815? 
Why  did  more  come  after  181 5?  From  what  part  of  Europe  did  they  come? 
What  did  the  new-comers  find  to  do  in  the  United  States? 

2.  What  two  classes  of  settlers  sought  lands  in  the  West?  How  did 
travelers  reach  the  West?  Where  was  the  frontier  at  this  time?  In  what 
two  ways  did  settlers  obtain  lands?  Why  did  immigrants  settle  the  southern 
part  of  Indiana  and  Illinois  before  the  northern?  What  new  states  were 
admitted  soon  after  the  War  of  181 2? 

3.  What  were  the  chief  occupations  of  frontiersmen  like  Abraham  Lincoln 
and  Jefferson  Davis?  How  did  lawyers,  judges,  and  preachers  reach  their 
work? 

4.  In  what  way  did  the  southern  frontier  differ  from  the  northern?  What 
kinds  of  work  did  the  slaves  perform?  What  things  made  the  plantation  system 
successful?  Why  did  many  planters  of  the  older  states  go  to  the  new  fron- 
tier? Where  did  the  two  streams  of  western  migration  meet?  What  region 
beyond  the  United  States  were  the  hardiest  frontiersmen  beginning  to  enter? 

5.  What  new  question  was  raised  by  the  effort  of  Missouri  to  be  admitted 
as  a  state?  Why  were  there  differences  of  opinion  about  this?  How  was  the 
question  finally  settled?  Which  gained  an  advantage  by  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise, the  North  or  the  South? 

6.  What  new  territory  partly  compensated  the  South  for  the  disadvantage 
of  the  Missouri  Compromise?  How  was  Florida  secured?  What  arrangement 
was  made  about  the  western  boundary  of  Louisiana?  Why  were  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  states  very  anxious  to  have  Florida  annexed? 

7.  What  conditions  in  South  America  made  Spain  ready  to  sell  Florida? 
Why  did  the  Spanish  colonies  revolt?  Who  were"  the  leaders  in  their  war  of 
independence?     Which  gained  their  independence?     Which  did  not? 

8.  What  plan  did  the  king  of  Spain  form  for  regaining  his  lost  colonies? 
What  was  Russia  trying  to  do  at  the  same  time?  Why  did  these  schemes  alarm 
the  United  States?  How  did  George  Canning  propose  to  prevent  the  reconquest 
of  the  Spanish  colonies?  Why  did  Adams  dislike  Canning's  plan?  What 
steps  did  Canning  take  for  England  and  Monroe  for  the  United  States?    Why 


322     THE  MARCH  OF  POPULATION  WESTWARD 

would  it  have  been  impossible  for  the  European  nations  to  help  Spain  recon- 
quer its  colonies? 

9.  What  did  Monroe  say  the  United  States  would  resist?  What  did  he 
declare  about  colonization  of  the  American  continents?  What  agreement  did 
the  United  States  make  with  Russia  in  1824? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Review  the  four  great  movements  in  American  history  taking  place 
after  the  War  of  181 2  which  are  described  in  Chapters  XXVI  and  XXVII. 

2.  How  does  a  territory  become  a  state  in  the  United  States? 

3.  Write  about  the  early  life  of  Abraham  Lincoln  or  Jefferson  Davis.  A 
list  of  books,  which  give  fuller  accounts  of  the  life  of  each,  wiU  be  found  on 
page  xxvi  of  the  Appendix  (References  for  Teachers). 

4.  If  the  grandparents  or  great  grandparents  of  any  of  the  members  of  the 
class  were  pioneers  at  this  time,  such  members  should  write  a  paper  telling  the 
story  of  their  relatives. 

5.  Which  was  of  the  greater  value —  the  help  that  France  gave  the  United 
States  in  the  Revolution,  or  the  help  that  England  and  the  United  States  gave 
the  Spanish  American  Republics  in  1823? 

6.  Monroe  declared  in  the  Monroe  Doctrine  that  the  colonization  of  the 
American  continents  was  at  an  end.  When  did  the  colonization  of  the  Amer- 
icas begin? 

Important  Dates : 

1809.   February  12,  birth  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

1 8 19.  Florida  purchased  from  Spain. 

1820.  The  Missouri  Compromise  adopted  by  Congress. 

1823.   President  Monroe  announces  the  so-called  Monroe  Doctrine. 


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CHAPTER  XXVIII 

GOVERNMENT   BY   THE   PEOPLE 

Changes  in  Government.  —  Changes  in  the  method  of  mak- 
ing articles,  better  ways  of  carrying  them  from  place  to  place, 
the  growth  of  cities,  and  the  rapid  increase  in  the  population 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  were  not  the  only  events  of  the 
period.  Important  changes  occurred  in  the  political  life  of 
the  people.  The  idea  that  ''all  men  are  equal"  affected 
more  then  ever  the  manner  of  governing  states  and  nation. 
The  older  families  from  which  had  been  drawn  the  leaders 
in  colonial  times  and  in  the  early  days  of  the  Republic  were 
no  longer  preferred  in  elections  and  appointments. 

The  Right  to  Vote.  —  When  Washington  became  President, 
scarcely  one-fourth  of  the  men  were  allowed  to  vote  at  elec- 
tions. Voters  and  office-holders  had  to  be  owners  of  prop- 
erty, usually  of  land.  Even  Franklin  said  that  men  who  had 
no  land  should  not  vote.  In  England  the  right  to  vote 
had  gone  with  ownership  of  land.  The  colonies  had  adopted 
the  same  practice,  and  the  framers  of  the  first  state  govern- 
ments continued  it.  But  in  the  new  states,  whether  Ver- 
mont east  of  the  Alleghanies,  or  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Tennessee, 
Indiana,  and  the  others  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  settlers 
were  very  much  alike  and  were  willing  to  treat  one  another 
so.  They  quickly  changed  the  notions  that  they  had  held 
in  the  older  communities.  The  idea  of  a  privileged  class  of 
persons  seemed  as  foolish  as  a  hereditary  nobility  or  as  kings 
by  divine  right.  These  states,  accordingly,  permitted  all  men 
to  vote  and  hold  office. 


324  GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE 

The  eastern  states  were  obliged  to  make  the  same  change, 
otherwise  the  stream  of  emigration  to  the  West  would  have 
been  even  greater.  The  change  was  not  accomplished  with- 
out long  debates  and  many  elections,  for  the  older  leaders 
prophesied  all  sorts  of  terrible  consequences.  A  few  states 
clung  to  some  of  the  established  rules,  Rhode  Island  for 
example,  insisting  that  only  owners  of  property  should  vote. 

Religious  Liberty.  —  Another  change,  which  naturally 
accompanied  manhood  suffrage,  was  the  grant  of  complete 
religious  Hberty.  Massachusetts  ceased  to  compel  all  tax- 
payers to  support  the  Congregational  Church.  In  South 
Carolina,  Roman  Catholics  gained  the  right  to  vote.  These 
are  but  two  illustrations  of  a  change  which  was  general. 

"Down  with  King  Caucus."  —  The  spirit  of  equality  or 
democracy  attacked  still  other  customs.  Candidates  for  the 
Presidency  had  been  nominated  by  the  members  of  Con- 
gress, those  who  belonged  to  each  poHtical  party  meeting  in 
what  was  called  a  caucus.  The  custom  gave  to  Congress- 
men an  important  privilege,  and  as  they  often  held  their 
places  for  long  periods,  a  few  men  had  a  large  influence  in 
making  presidents.  A  loud  outcry  was,  therefore,  raised 
against  "  King  Caucus." 

Many  people  wished  to  vote  directly  for  their  candidates, 
instead  of  voting  for  electors.  Thomas  H.  Benton,  a  senator 
from  Missouri,  urged  such  a  change.  Several  amendments  to 
the  Constitution  were  offered,  but  the  plan  failed.  Two-thirds 
of  the  members  of  both  houses  of  Congress  and  three-fourths 
of  the  states  must  consent  to  an  amendment,  and  Benton  was 
not  able  to  secure  the  approval  of  so  large  a  majority. 

The  reformers,  however,  gradually  brought  about  two 
changes:  (i)  that  the  people  should  vote  directly  for  electors 
instead  of  leaving  their  appointment  to  the  legislatures  of  the 
states,  as  had  usually  been  the  rule;  and  (2)  that  the  nomi- 
nation should  be  made  by  a  convention  of  delegates  from  the 


ADMINISTRATION    OF   ANDREW   JACKSON      325 


states.  It  was  already  understood  that  the  electors  must 
vote  for  the  person  named  by  the  caucus  or  convention.^  In 
1824  one  of  the  candidates  for  President  was  selected  by  a 
caucus  of  members  qf  Congress,  but  that  was  the  last  time. 
For  a  few  years  a  mixed  s}^stem  went  on  —  sometimes  the 
nomination  was  the  work  of  state  legislatures,  sometimes  a 
convention  of  delegates  within  the  several  states.  Finally, 
in  1832,  great  national  conventions  met  for  the  purpose  of 
putting. candidates  before  the  country. 

The  people  soon  discovered  that  the  overthrow  of  '^King 
Caucus"  had  not  gained  for  them  a  greater  share  in  the  selec- 
tion of  presidents.  They  had  merely  handed  power  to  a  new 
set  of  masters,  the  party  managers  or  "  bosses."  ^  Calhoun 
thought  that  the  people  had 
lost  by  the  change  and  that 
the  '^ bosses"  were  worse  than 
the  Congressmen.  At  least 
one  good  result  came  from  the 
long  discussion  of  methods  of 
nominating  and  electing  presi- 
dents: the  people  began  to 
think  the  office  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  Repubhc. 

Andrew  Jackson's  Election, 
1828.  —  One  reason  why  the 
common  people  began  to  feel 
so  high  regard  for  the  office 
was  that  Andrew  Jackson, 
their  idol,  was  chosen  President  in  1828.  Jackson  was  born 
on  the  frontier  in  North  Carolina.     His  parents  were  Scotch- 


Andrew  Jackson 

In  1830.     Age  63.     After  the  portrait 

by  R.  W.  Earl 


^  The  framers  of  the  Constitution  intended  that  the  electors  should  choose 
the  President,  and  not  merely  record  the  wishes  of  the  voters  of  their  states. 

2  Sometimes  the  party  managers  or  "  bosses  "  were  private  citizens,  some- 
times they  were  local  office-holders  or  members  of  Congress. 


326 


GOVERNMENT   BY   THE   PEOPLE 


Irish.  Like  all  boys  on  the  frontier,  he  received  little  school- 
ing. Later  he  studied  law  and  crossed  the  mountains  to 
Nashville,  then  a  small  village.  When  Tennessee  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  in  1796,  Jackson  was  chosen  its  first 
representative  in  Congress.  To  reach  Philadelphia  he  was 
obliged  to  ride  on  horse-back  800  miles,  most  of  the  way 
^^^-.^^  -s  '  -V—  ^^  —  '  through     an     un- 


settled  wilderness. 
His  life  since  then 
had  been  spent 
chiefly  in  the  army, 
where  he  became 
skilful  in  frontier 
fighting.  The  vic- 
tory of  New  Or- 
leans    had     made 


Birthplace  of  Andrew  Jackson 


him  a  hero.     Andrew  Jackson  was  a  typical  westerner,  and 
born  leader  of  the  common  people. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1824  Jackson  received  the 
largest  vote  of  any  of  the  four  candidates,  but  not  a  major- 
ity of  all  electoral  votes.  The  choice  of  a  President ,  there- 
fore, belonged  to  the  House  of  Representatives.  Two  of 
Jackson's  rivals  were  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Henry  Clay. 
Their  supporters  in  the  House  united  and  chose  Adams. 
Jackson's  friends  thought  that  he  had  been  cheated,  because 
more  men  voted  for  him  than  for  Adams,  and  they  prepared 
to  make  his  election  sure  the  next  time.  The  southerners, 
the  frontiersmen  and  farmers  of  the  West,  the  workmen  in 
the  factory  towns  —  the  common  people,  most  of  them  the 
new  voting  class  —  rallied  to  Jackson's  aid.  Great  was  their 
joy  when  they  knew  that  their  chief  was  victorious.  It 
seemed  to  them  to  be  the  beginning  of  new  things,  and  in 
more  ways  than  one  they  were  right.  No  election  since 
Jefferson's  had  meant  so  much. 


NEW   POLITICAL   PARTIES  327 

So  great  was  the  power  which  Jackson's  triumph  gave  him 
that  some  timid  poHticians  were  afraid  that  the  presidency 
might  be  changed  into  a  kingship.  Those  who  dishked  his 
domineering  ways  called  the  period,  ''The  reign  of  Andrew 
Jackson."  For  eight  years,  or  two  terms,  he  was  President, 
and  remained  faithful  to  the  cause  of  the  common  people. 

Who  Shall  hold  the  Offices?  —  President  Jackson  and  his 
supporters  had  views  about  office-holding  which  now  seem 
unwise  or  even  harmful.  For  example,  they  believed  it  dan- 
gerous to  allow  men  to  hold  office  a  long  time.  They  were 
afraid  that  officials  would  get  the  idea  that  an  office  was  a 
piece  of  property  which  they  owned  and  would  grow  careless 
about  its  duties.  So  the  Jacksonians  attacked  long  terms  of 
office,  just  as  people  before  them  had  attacked  kingship  and 
hereditary  nobility. 

Worse  than  this  was  the  way  they  used  offices  to  reward 
friends  and  to  punish  opponents.  Jackson  did  not  introduce 
the  custom.  It  had  been  going  on  many  years  in  some  of  the 
states.  The  men  who  came  into  power  at  Jackson's  election 
demanded  that  the  offices  of  the  national  government  be 
distributed  more  freely  among  the  common  people.  Shrewd 
political  managers,  with  nothing  else  with  which  to  pay  their 
party  followers,  fell  in  with  the  idea.  Jackson  did  not  wish 
to  turn  honest  and  competent  officials  out,  but  he  was  easily 
persuaded  that  those  who  were  ''in"  were  incompetent  ras- 
cals. To  all  complaints  his  friends  repHed,  "To  the  victors 
belong  the  spoils." 

New  political  Parties.  —  Jacksonian  democracy  carried 
forward  the  ideas  that  Thomas  Jefferson  had  taught,  but 
went  farther  than  he  dreamed  of  going.  Since  his  day  the 
Republican  party  had  absorbed  most  of  his  old  opponents, 
the  Federalists.  Their  attitude  during  the  War  of  18 12 
made  them  unpopular,  and  their  party  had  melted  away. 
The  period  after  the  war,  when  there  was  but  one  great  party, 


328 


GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE 


BORN  TO  COMMAND 


has  been  called  an  ''  Era  of  Good  Feeling."  It  is  hard  to  find 
the  good  feeling  among  the  leaders  of  the  day,  for  there  were 
really  many  different  factions  or  groups  within  the  Republi- 
can party.  Some  were  the  followers  of  Adams,  some  of  Clay, 
some  of  Calhoun,  and  some  of  Jackson.  Upon  Jackson's 
election  his  followers  took  possession  of  the  old  Jeffersonian 

Repubhcan  party.  They  kept  its 
name  a  while,  but  were  more  com- 
monly known  as  ''Jackson  men," 
and  soon  adopted  the  name  of 
Democrats.  The  Democratic  party 
of  Jackson's  day  was  really  a  new 
party  —  Jacksonian  rather  than 
Jeffersonian. 

The  opponents  of  Jackson  claim- 
ed to  be  the  true  Jeffersonian  Re- 
pubhcans  —  National  RepubUcans 
they  were  called.  These  men,  the 
followers  of  many  different  leaders, 
were  united  only  in  a  dislike  for 
Andrew  Jackson.  They  accused 
him  of  restoring  the  kind  of  govern- 
ment against  which  the  patriots 
had  fought  in  the  Revolution,  because  he  had  made  the 
office  of  President  so  powerful.  For  this  reason  they  called 
him  " King  Andrew,"  and  his  followers  "Tories."  They  took 
for  themselves  the  old  Revolutionary  party  name  of  Whigs. 
The  Whigs  were  chiefly  interested  in  keeping  up  the  tariff, 
having  the  national  government  aid  the  states  in  building 
canals  and  roads,  and  in  opposing  Jackson  and  the  growth  of 
the  powers  of  his  office.  Their  greatest  leaders  were  Henry 
Clay  of  Kentucky  and  Daniel  Webster  of  Massachusetts.  ^ 

Democracy  in  Europe.  —  These  changes  in   poHtical  life 
were   not  pecuUar   to    the    United    States.     The    common 


KING  ANDREW  the  FIRST 


What  Jackson's  Opponents 

THOUGHT   OF  HlM 
From  a  contemporary  cartoon 


DEMOCR.\CY  IN   EUROPE  329 

people  had  not  forgotten  the  ideas  of  equaHty  and  brother- 
hood proclaimed  by  the  French  Revolution,  even  if  their 
rulers  tried  to  compel  them  to  act  as  if  they  had.  In  1830 
another  revolution  took  place  in  France.  The  King,  who 
was  the  younger  brother  of  the  unfortunate  Louis  XVI,  was 
driven  from  his  throne,  and  a  cousin,  Louis  Philippe,  was 
made  king.  Louis  liked  to  be  called  the  ''Citizen  King," 
and  he  went  about  the  streets  as  an  ordinary  man.  He  also 
sent  his  sons  to  the  pubKc  schools.  He  had  once  been  a 
refugee  in  the  United  States,  and  loved  to  talk  about  the 
Americans  to  returned  travelers. 

General  Lafayette  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  this  revolution. 
He  would  have  preferred  a  repubUcan  government,  but  he 
was  more  anxious  to  secure  political  liberty  than  any  par- 
ticular form  of  government,  and  supported  the  new  king.  A 
new  law  in  France  about  doubled  the  number  of  voters. 

A  still  more  important  change  occurred  in  England.  By 
the"  Great  Reform  Bill  "of  1832  the  English  parliament  aban- 
doned its  old  method  of  representation  and  adopted  plans 
more  hke  those  long  used  in  America.  The  right  to  send 
members  to  parliament  was  taken  from  many  communities 
with  few  inhabitants,  which  were  controlled  by  the  land- 
owners, and  it  was  given  to  the  new  factory  cities  like  Bir- 
mingham, Manchester,  and  Sheffield.  The  right  to  vote  was 
also  extended  greatly,  though  most  of  the  workmen  in  the 
towns,  and  laborers  everywhere,  were  still  excluded.  In 
neither  France  nor  England  did  they  go  as  far  toward  a 
more  democratic  government  as  in  the  United  States,  but 
a  long  step  was  taken  in  that  direction. 

Such  changes  in  England  meant  that  leadership  was  passing 
from  the  men  who  had  looked  upon  the  Americans  as  rebels. 
The  new  leaders  were  willing  to  acknowledge  that  the  Eng- 
hsh  colonists  in  America  had  fought  the  battle  of  colonists 
ever^-where.     These  leaders  would  soon  be  ready  to  give  fuU 


330  GOVERNMENT  BY  THE  PEOPLE 

rights  of  self-government  to  colonists  like  the  Canadians  who 
still  remained  loyal  to  the  mother  country. 

QUESTIONS 

1  Name  five  important  changes  that  were  slowly  going  on  in  the  United 
States.  What  restrictions  had  formerly  been  placed  on  voting  and  holdmg 
office^  Why  did  the  new  states  allow  aU  men  to  vote  and  hold  office?  Why 
did  the  eastern  states  follow  their  example?     Illustrate  changes  taking  place 

regarding  religious  liberty.  ^         j-.     ,,ru  .    i, 

2  How  had  candidates  for  the  presidency  been  nommated?  What  changes 
did  Senator  Benton  attempt  to  make?  What  changes  were  finaUy  made  m 
electing  and  nominating  the  President?  Did  the  people  reaUy  gam  much  by 
the  changes  in  method  of  nominations? 

3.   Who  was  chosen  President  in  1828?     Why  was  he  so  popular? 

4  What  views  did  Jackson  and  his  supporters  have  about  office  holdmg? 
Why  did  the  party  managers  like  the  plan  of  short  terms  and  passing  offices 
about  among  the  common  people?    What  burden  did  these  changes  place  upon 

the  President?  ,.  .  .  ,     , 

5  What  became  of  the  old  Federalist  party?  What  division  took  place  m 
the  Jeffersonian  Republican  party?  What  name  did  Jackson's  followers  take? 
Why  did  the  Whigs  choose  that  name?     W^ho  were  the  greatest  leaders  of  the 

Whigs? 

6.  What  long  steps  toward  democracy  were  taken  in  France  in  1830  and 
in  England  in  1832?  How  would  such  changes  in  England  affect  the  attitude 
of  the  mother  country  toward  Canada  and  toward  the  United  States? 

EXERCISES 

I.   Learn  the  qualifications  for  voters  in  the  state.     Have  these  always  been 

the  same?  ,  ,         1 

2  Find  out  the  number  of  men  in  the  precinct,  the  number  who  can  vote, 
and  the  number  who  voted  at  the  last  election.  Why  do  many  men  fail  to 
vote?     Can  women  vote? 

3  How  can  an  immigrant  become  a  voter? 

4'  Learn  how  the  President  and  other  officers  are  nominated  to-day.  Is  the 
method  an  improvement  over  the  old  one  by  caucus  or  by  convention? 

5  Does  the  President  remove  the  postmasters  when  he  takes  office  and 
appoint  his  party  workers  to  the  vacant  positions?     Make  a  Hst  of  the  officers 

whom  he  still  changes.  ,     ..  .     j  o.  .  j 

6  What  classes  of  men  were  allowed  to  vote  m  the  United  States,  and  were 
still  excluded  in  France  and  England  after  the  changes  of  1830  and  1832? 

Important  Dates :  t.      . ,     ^  r  o  „ 

1828.   Jackson  elected  President.    Jackson  serves  as  President  from  1829 

until  1837. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 


PROBLEMS    OF   THE    NEW   DEMOCRACY 

Strife  over  Tariffs.  —  The  growth  of  the  national  indus- 
tries and  the  spread  of  population  gave  Andrew  Jackson  and 
his  successor,  Martin  Van  Buren,  several  difficult  problems 
to  solve.  The  first  of  these  was  the  tariff.  When  the  tariff 
of  1816  was  adopted  by  Congress,  leaders  of  the  South,  like 
Calhoun,  voted  for  it,  be- 
lieving protective  duties 
advantageous  to  the  south- 
ern, as  well  as  to  the  north- 
ern, states.  The  South, 
however,  soon  found  that 
taxes  on  clothing  and  tools, 
things  needed  on  the  plan- 
tations, were  a  serious  bur- 
den. Cotton  did  not  re- 
quire protection  by  a  tariff, 
because  it  was  not  import- 
ed,   but     exported.       The 

southern  leaders  concluded  that  they  were  taxed  for  the 
benefit  of  the  North.  Matters  were  made  worse  when  the 
extension  of  the  plantation  system,  especially  in  the  new 
Southwest,  led  to  over-production  of  cotton  and  to  low 
prices. 

The  Idea  of  Nullification.  —  In  the  opposition  to  the  tariff 
Calhoun,  who  was  Vice-President,  became  the  spokesman  of 
the  South.  He  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  new 
pohtical  methods,  which  were  introduced  mainly  by  the  Jack- 


John  C.  Calhoun 


332         PROBLEMS  OF  THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY 

sonians,  strengthened  the  central  government  too  much, 
destroying  the  original  plan  according  to  which  one  set  of 
powers  acted  as  a  check  upon  another.  To  him  the  party 
managers  seemed  to  be  gaining  power  in  every  direction 
through  the  choice  of  presidential  electors  directly  by  the 
voters,  the  convention  system  of  nominating  the  President, 
and  the  spoils  system,  which  was  used  to  pay  faithful  party 
followers.  Calhoun,  therefore,  fell  back  upon  the  old  idea 
that  the  states,  rather  than  the  Supreme  Court,  were  final 
judges  of  what  the  national  government  had  a  right  to  do. 

In  1832  South  Carolina,  influenced  by  Calhoun,  called  a 
state  convention  which  declared  the  tariff  acts  null  and  void. 
This  meant  that  the  national  officers  could  not  collect  duties 
in  the  ports  of  South  Carolina,  and  that  if  the  United  States 
used  force,  the  state  would  withdraw  from  the  Union. 

Two  years  before  this  a  great  debate  on  the  questions  of 
states'  rights  had  taken  place  in  the  United  States  Senate. 
Senator  Hayne  of  South  Carolina  defended  the  ideas  of  Cal- 
houn, and  Senator  Webster  of  Massachusetts  argued  that  the 
powers  of  the  national  government  were  supreme.  Webster 
closed  one  of  his  speeches  with  the  exclamation,  "Liberty  and 
Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable."  In  these 
words  he  uttered  what  was  in  the  hearts  of  multitudes,  espe- 
cially of  the  settlers  of  the  newer  western  states. 

Jackson  and  South  Carolina.  —  Jackson  had  no  special 
liking  for  the  tariff,  but  he  loved  the  Union  as  intensely  as 
Webster.  He  denied  that  a  state  could  set  aside  a  law  of 
the  United  States  merely  because  it  disliked  the  law.  If 
war  should  become  necessary,  he  declared  that  in  forty  days 
he  would  have  40,000  men  in  South  Carolina.  Men  knew 
that  he  would  make  his  words  good.  Henry  Clay  wished 
to  keep  Jackson  from  leading  an  army  into  South  Carolina, 
and  suggested  a  compromise  in  Congress.  By  it  the  tariff 
was  gradually  reduced   to   the  level  of   18 16.     Both  sides 


TALK  OF  NULLIFICATION 


333 


claimed  the  victory,  the  United  States  because  it  had  forced 
South  CaroHna  to  repeal  its  declaration  against  a  tariff  act, 
with  all  it  had  said  about  states'  rights;  South  Carolina 
because  it  had  forced  Congress  to  lower  the  duties  on  imports. 

More  Talk  of  Nullification. 
—  South  Carohna  was  not  the 
only  state  where  men  talked 
of  nulHfying  national  laws. 
The  United  States  had  a  dis- 
pute with  Great  Britain  about 
the  northeastern  boundary. 
The  King  of  the  Netherlands 
was  asked  to  act  as  an  arbitra- 
tor, and  in  1831  recommended 
that  the  United  States  give  up 
part  of  the  territory  on  the 
borders  of  Maine.  Maine  and 
Massachusetts  were  opposed  to 
the  plan  of  settlement,  for  it 
would  have  taken  from  Maine 
territory  that  she  claimed  and 
from  Massachusetts  the  owner- 
ship of  lands  in  the  same  territory.  Both  declared  through 
their  legislatures  that  the  United  States  had  no  power  to 
cede  any  portion  of  a  state  without  its  consent.  They  did 
not  say  that  they  would  withdraw  from  the  Union  or  fight 
if  the  United  States  accepted  the  decision  of  the  King  of 
the  Netherlands,  but  that  they  would  treat  the  decision  as 
null  and  void.  All  trouble  between  the  United  States  and 
the  two  northeastern  states  was  avoided  by  setting  aside 
the  decision  of  the  arbitrator  and  leaving  the  question  of  the 
boundary  unsettled. 

Other   Hard    Questions.  —  The   tariff   was   the  principal 
tax  by  which  the  national  government  raised  enough  money 


Map  showing  Disputed  Bouni>- 
ARY  OF  Maine 


334       PROBLEMS    OF    THE    NEW    DEMOCRACY 

to  pay  its  expenses.  How  the  tariff  should  also  be  used  to 
give  aid  to  American  industries  was  a  hard  question.  Other 
questions,  equally  hard,  faced  the  legislators  and  officers  of 
the  states.  How  much  was  it  safe  to  expend  on  roads, 
canals,  and  other  internal  improvements?  Should  the  state 
permit  banks  to  issue  paper  money,  when  the  states  them- 
selves were  forbidden  by  the  Constitution  to  issue  such 
money? 

Still  other  questions  faced  the  business  men  of  the  country, 
especially  of  the  West.  Was  it  wise  to  buy  land  for  town  sites, 
lay  out  streets  and  lots,  on  the  chance  that  part  of  the  great 
stream  of  emigration  would  turn  in  their  direction  and  enrich 
those  who  were  on  the  ground  first?  Should  bankers  lend 
money  to  men  who  would  have  nothing  to  pay  the  debt  unless 
the  town  lots  were  bought  speedily  and  the  canals  had  a 
good  deal  of  freight  to  carry?  Was  it  right  for  a  bank  to 
issue  paper  money  with  very  little  coin  in  its  vaults  with 
which  to  redeem  the  notes? 

Many  of  the  canals  were  badly  located  and  bound  to  fail. 
The  main  reason  why  they  should  have  been  planned  more 
cautiously  was  the  invention  of  the  railroad  and  the  loco- 
motive. Railroads  did  not  put  an  end  to  the  usefulness  of 
canals  like  the  Erie,  but  they  soon  made  many  others  un- 
profitable, causing  the  money  expended  upon  them  to  become 
a  total  loss. 

The  Locomotive. — No  invention  has  had  greater  influence 
on  American  history  than  that  of  the  locomotive.  For  this 
the  world  is  chiefly  indebted  to  George  Stephenson,  the  son  of 
an  EngHsh  laborer.  The  story  is  told  that  in  1807  he  wished 
to  go  to  America,  but  found  that  he  was  too  poor  to  pay  his 
passage.  As  an  engineer  at  a  coal  mine  he  learned  all  about 
the  Watt  steam-engine.  Stephenson  thought  something  like 
it  could  be  used  on  the  railroads  which  were  being  built  for 
horse-cars.    About   18 14  he  invented  his  first  locomotive, 


EARLY  RAILROADS  335 

—  a  rough,  noisy,  weak  machine,  —  but  he  proved  that  it 
could  draw  cars  for  every-day  business.  By  1825  he  was 
able  to  secure  its  introduction  in  place  of  horse-power  on  the 
new  railroads,  which  were  short  lines  about  a  dozen  miles  in 
length. 

Introduction  of  the  Locomotive  in  the  United  States.  — 
The  Erie  Canal  proved  of  so  great  benefit  to  business  in  New 
York  City  that  other  cities  were  anxious  about  their  share 


The  First  Locomotive  built  in  the  United  States 
Drawn  on  the  same  scale  as  the  modern  locomotive  shown  behind  it 

of  the  western  trade.  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  was  the 
first  to  use  one  of  the  new  locomotives  on  a  railroad  some  six 
miles  long.  This  was  in  1830.  Four  years  later  the  line  was 
extended  westward  137  miles  to  the  Savannah  River  near 
Augusta.  Meanwhile  the  owners  of  the  short  horse-car 
Hues  built  from  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia  toward  the  West 
adopted  the  new  power.^ 

The  locomotives  were  improved  and  gradually  took  the 
place  of  horses  on  all  railroads.  At  first  the  locomotives 
could  not  climb  steep  grades  or  run  very  swiftly.     Fourteen 

^  Peter  Cooper  built  a  locomotive  for  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  as 
the  Baltimore  line  was  called,  and  because  it  was  small  he  called  it  the  "Tom 
Thumb."  Men  had  doubted  whether  a  locomotive  could  run  around  curves 
without  leaving  the  track.  Cooper  proved  that  his  could  round  even  sharp 
curves.  A  race  with  a  horse-car  ended  the  trial  trip  on  the  double  track  near 
Baltimore.  The  horse  started  quicker,  but  the  puffing  engine  soon  gained 
headway  and  caught  up  with  the  horse.  Then  the  race  was  neck  and  neck 
with  the  iron  steed  gaining  as  the  horse  grew  tired,  but  a  pulley  slipped  off 
the  engine  and  the  horse-car  finished  first. 


336       PROBLEMS   OF   THE   NEW   DEMOCRACY 


o^  Qaaa  q®m>  o^msq  asjo  SAnAttiPAcstiHae, 

Tim  Pbiladelpbia  to  Pittsburgh, 

TBROVOB  Xltf  3i  SATS: 

•*A-J)  BY  STCJin  BOATS,  CjIKMYIAtC  T««  VJrlTED  STATZT  MAIL, 

From  PITTSBURGH  to  LOHSVTUE. 


or  fifteen  miles  an  hour  was  the  best  they  could  do.  Railroad 
builders  were  slow  in  learning  how  to  build  the  tracks  in 
order  to  endure  hard  usage.  At  the  hills  the  locomotives 
stopped,  and  stationary  engines  with  ropes  dragged  the  cars 

up  an  incHned  plane 
to  the  top,  where  an- 
other locomotive  took 
the  cars  on  the  jour- 
ney. Philadelphia 
used  this  system  on 
part  of  the  state- 
highway  to  Pitts- 
burgh, which  was 
built  to  offset  the  ad- 
vantage given  to  New 
York  by  the  Erie 
Canal. 

Other  Early  Rail- 
roads. —  Other  re- 
gions became  eager 
to  have  railroads. 
New  York  business 
men  began  short  lines 
parallel  to  the  Erie 
Canal.  In  1841  Bos- 
ton men  began  a  railroad  which  was  soon  to  reach  Albany. 
The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  was  steadily  extended  westward. 
By  1840  nearly  3,000  miles  of  railway  had  been  built  in  the 
United  States.  It  was,  however,  another  ten  years  before 
the  great  railway  era  opened. 

Cost  of  Railroads  and  Canals.  —  Some  of  the  states  which 
had  borrowed  money  to  build  canals  borrowed  equally  great 
sums  to  build  railroads.  Before  1838  Illinois  borrowed  for 
this  purpose  $7,400,000,  nearly  as  much  as  New  York  and 


Starts  every  morning,  from  the  corner  of  Broad  &Race  St. 


Pattengers    for   Cmcinnaii,  LoHisrllle,  iVatchcz,  JVaifiville,  Si.  Louis,  Ac. 


OFFICE,  N    E.  CORNER  OF  FOtTRTH  AND  CHESNTTT  1 


Jt  B    CVMMJJTGa,  Agtmt. 


Advertisement  showing  Method  of  Travel 

FROM  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh  in  1837 

Reduced  facsimile 


JACKSON  AND  THE  UNITED   STATES  BANK    337 

Pennsylvania  together  had  borrowed.  Illinois  at  that  time 
was  a  frontier  state,  rich  in  land,  but  with  only  little  money. 
Chicago  was  still  a  village.  The  states  together  had  already 
borrowed  for  canals  and  railroads  over  $100,000,000.  The 
difficulty  was  that  everybody  had  borrowed  too  much.  How 
would  Jackson  treat  the  situation? 


An  Early  Railro.\d  Train 
From  an  old  print 


Jackson  destroys  the  Bank  of  the  United  States. — In  1816 
a  new  Bank  of  the  United  States  had  been  given  a  charter  for 
twenty  years.  It  was  managed  in  such  a  way  that  it  was 
always  able  to  pay  its  notes  in  gold  or  silver.  For  this  reason 
business  men  preferred  its  notes  to  the  notes  of  the  small 
state  banks  which  sometimes  were  not  paid.  The  state  banks, 
therefore,  wished  to  put  an  end  to  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States,  which  they  said  was  trying  to  get  all  the  business. 
The  western  farmers  and  the  eastern  workingmen  also  feared 
and  hated  the  Bank.  Jackson  shared  their  feelings,  mainly 
because  he  suspected  that  the  Bank  officials  and  their  friends 
were  meddling  in  poHtics  and  trying  to  control  the  govern- 
ment. His  second  campaign,  in  1832,  was  fought  on  the 
question  as  to  whether  or  not  the  Bank  should  be  permitted 
to  continue.^    As  he  won,  the  Bank  was  obHged  to  close  its 

^  The  Bank  secured  a  charter  from  Pennsylvania  and  continued  to  do  busi- 
ness as  a  state  bank  until  it  failed  in  1841. 


338        PROBLEMS  OF  THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY 

relations  with  the  United  States  by  the  time  the  charter 
ran  out. 

Getting  Rich  Quickly. — An  era  of  unregulated  or  "wild 
cat"  banking  now  set  in.  The  "  Get-rich-quick"  fever  seized 
nearly  everyone.  The  state  banks,  as  the  states  did  before  the 
new  Constitution  forbade  it,  issued  vast  quantities  of  paper 
money.  In  1834  the  amount  was  $94,000,000,  and  in  1837 
$149,000,000.  A  measure  which  Jackson  adopted  made  the 
trouble  worse.  He  deposited  government  money,  formerly 
deposited  in  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  in  other  banks. 
These  banks,  which  his  enemies  called  "pet"  banks,  became 
even  more  reckless  in  lending  money.  Seeing  that  the  fever 
of  speculation  had  reached  the  danger  point,  the  government 
officials  tried  to  reduce  it  by  medicine  which  nearly  killed  the 
patient. 

Panic  of  1837.  —  The  remedy  was  an  announcement  that 
the  government  would  receive  in  payment  for  land  only  gold 
and  silver.  Buyers  had  been  permitted  to  pay  in  the  notes 
of  the  state  banks.  The  change  meant  that  the  little  coin 
that  was  in  the  vaults  of  the  state  banks  might  be  drawn  out 
and  that  their  notes  would  be  less  likely  to  be  paid  than  before. 
At  the  same  time  the  eastern  banks  were  affected  by  business 
depression  in  England.  Englishmen  tried  to  collect  their 
loans  and  ceased  buying  cotton,  so  that  the  loans  must  be 
paid,  if  at  all,  in  coin.  Now  everyone  who  had  lent  began 
to  fear  the  loss  of  his  money  and  called  upon  borrowers 
to  pay.  The  borrowers  had  not  realized  their  dreams  of 
wealth  and  had  little  with  which  to  pay.  Happily  for 
Jackson,  the  crash  did  not  come  until  his  successor,  Van 
Buren,  had  been  inaugurated.  Then  banks,  business  houses, 
and  factories  failed,  and  thousands  of  workmen  were  thrown 
out  of  employment.  It  was  five  years  before  the  country 
recovered  from  the  after-effects  of  its  first  great  fever  of 
speculation. 


FINANCIAL  AND  LABOR  QUESTIONS  339 

Trade  Unions.  —  None  were  affected  more  by  the  prosper- 
ous times  of  Jackson's  administration  or  by  the  miseries  of 
Van  Buren's  than  the  workingmen.  They  were  now  numerous 
enough  in  the  larger  cities  and  factory  towns  to  form  trade 
societies  and  general  trade  unions.  The  men  of  each  trade 
formed  a  trade  society;  as,  for  example,  the  tailors  or  printers 
or  shoemakers.  Several  trade  societies  of  the  same  place 
formed  together  a  general  trade  union. 

According  to  Enghsh  laws,  which  were  not  repealed 
until  1825,  laborers  who  combined  to  gain  high  wages  or 
to  secure  other  benefits,  especially  by  means  of  strikes, 
should  be  severely  punished.  The  officials  and  judges  in 
the  United  States  at  first  treated  the  trade  societies  in 
the  same  way,  sending  their  members  to  jail  or  fining 
them  heavily.  As  the  societies  multipKed,  this  practice  was 
abandoned. 

What  the  Workingmen  were  seeking.  —  The  workingmen's 
unions  were,  of  course,  interested  in  securing  shorter  hours  of 
work  and  higher  wages.  They  wished  also  to  aboKsh  the  old 
system  of  imprisonment  for  debt  and  to  obtain  a  general 
system  of  free  public  schools. 

The  unions  then  as  now  brought  on  strikes,  and  sometimes 
successfully  bargained  with  their  employers.  Men  who  could 
say  to  their  employers,  ''Raise  our  wages,  or  we  will  go  to 
the  West  and  take  up  farms,"  had  an  advantage  that  no 
European  laborers  possessed.  The  fact  that  there  was  such 
an  abundance  of  cheap  land  had  a  twofold  effect  on  Ameri- 
can life:  (i)  intelligent  and  thrifty  workmen  were  able  to 
choose  between  the  wages  offered  and  the  western  farm,  and 
(2)  so  many  went  West  that  the  trade  societies  did  not  grow 
very  strong. 

In  some  trades  the  employees  were  able  to  obtain  a 
working  day  of  ten  hours.  When  hard  times  came  on  wjth 
the  panic  of  1837,  laborers  found  that  work  was  the  thing 


340        PROBLEMS  OF  THE  NEW  DEMOCRACY 

they  needed  most.  President  Van  Buren,  like  Jackson^ 
was  especially  interested  in  their  demands,  and  in  184c 
he  fixed  ten  hours  as  the  length  of  day  for  employees  oi 
the  government,  thus  setting  a  good  example  to  private 
employers. 

The  Humanitarians.  —  The  workingmen  found  the  ballot 
their  most  useful  weapon.  In  several  cities  they  even  formed 
separate  political  parties,  but  they  usually  voted  with  the 
Democratic  party.  They  found  allies  in  a  group  of  men  whc 
took  a  deep  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  down-trodden  and 
suffering  everywhere.  It  was  a  period  when  intelHgent  men 
in  England  and  Europe  as  well  as  America  were  growing  more 
humane.  In  1834  the  ''reformed"  English  parliament  abol- 
ished slavery  throughout  the  British  empire.  The  leaders  in 
this  movement  may  be  called  humanitarians.  Prominent 
among  them  in  the  United  States  were  WilKam  Ellery  Chan- 
ning,  Horace  Mann,  and  William  Lloyd  Garrison.  Garrison 
founded  a  paper  in  Boston  in  1831  and  devoted  his  life  to 
denouncing  the  system  of  slave  labor  and  calling  for  its 
immediate  abolition.  Few  people  were  won  over  by  his 
violent  language,  or  as  yet  took  any  great  interest  in  the 
subject. 

Abolition  of  Imprisonment  for  Debt.  —  By  1840  the 
workingmen  and  humanitarians  together  brought  to  an  end 
imprisonment  for  debt,  a  cruel  practice  which  had  come 
over  from  Europe.  When  Jackson  became  President  75,000 
persons  were  sent  to  jail  as  debtors  every  year.  In  Philadel- 
phia forty  men  were  imprisoned  for  owing  about  sixty  cents 
each.  To  make  matters  worse,  the  states  as  a  rule  failed  to 
furnish  either  food  or  clothing  or  fuel  to  the  prisoners.  They 
depended  upon  gifts  for  these,  if  their  famiHes  could  not  care 
for  them.  Debtors  were  huddled  together  in  the  prisons 
with  the  worst  criminals. 

Free  Elementary  Schools.  —  The  greatest  triumph  of  the 


PHILANTHROPY  AND   EDUCATION 


341 


humanitarians,  the  workingmen,  and  the  farmers  of  the 
western  states  was  the  estabhshment  of  a  system  of  schools, 
supported  by  taxation,  in  nearly  every  state  East  and  West. 
The  New  England  states  had  long  before  this  tried  to  provide 
free  schools  for  all  boys.  But  they  were  only  partially  suc- 
cessful. Elsewhere  the  ''free 
schools  "were  for  the  children  of 
the  very  poor  and  were  really 
nothing  more  than  ''pauper 
schools."  In  most  places  the 
parents  taught  their  own  chil- 
dren or  engaged  a  tutor  for 
them,  if  they  could  afford  one. 

The  workingmen  demanded 
free  schools,  supported  out  of 
taxes,  for  rich  and  poor  alike. 
What  is  more,  they  kept  the  sub- 
ject foremost  and,  with  the  help 
of  educational  reformers  like 
Horace  Mann,  were  generally  successful.  State  after  state 
voted  that  taxes  should  be  used  to  establish  elementary 
schools.  The  southern  states,  having  no  great  body  of 
free  workingmen  to  ask  for  free  schools,  were  an  exception. 
These  states,  except  South  Carolina  and  North  Carolina, 
made  Httle  effort  to  establish  such  schools,  but  continued  to 
depend  on  family  tutors  or  small  private  schools.  In  the 
West  the  states  were  aided  by  the  wise  system  begun  by  the 
Congress  of  the  Confederation  of  giving  one  section  in  each 
township  for  the  benefit  of  the  common  schools. 

Girls  admitted.  —  In  colonial  days  girls  were  seldom 
admitted  to  the  town  schools,  and  then  only  at  odd  times 
when  the  boys  were  not  in  school.  One  writer  says,  "In  all 
my  school  days,  which  ended  in  1801,  I  never  saw  but  three 
females  in  public  schools,  and  they  were  only  there  in  the 


HoEACE  Mann 


342        PROBLEMS    OF   THE    NEW    DEMOCRACY 

afternoon  to  learn  to  write."  ^  A  more  liberal  attitude  pre- 
vailed soon  after  this  writer's  school  days  closed.  The  towns 
which  established  free  public  schools  for  boys  also  opened 
them  to  girls.  In  a  few  of  the  older  cities  on  the  coast 
separate  schools  were  estabHshed  for  the  girls.  But  most 
towns  were  too  poor  to  build  two  schools.  Even  in  those 
which  succeeded,  the  girls'  school  was  not  as  good  as  that 
of  the  boys. 

High  Schools.  —  The  new  interest  in  education  led  quickly 
to  the  founding  of  free  high  schools.^  Boston  had  one  in  182 1, 
Philadelphia  in  1839,  and  the  number  increased  rapidly  with 
each  year.  Many  of  the  older  towns  had  private  academies, 
and  did  not  find  it  necessary  to  start  new  schools.  This 
was  especially  true  where  the  old  academies  had  money 
enough  so  that  they  could  give  a  free  education  to  the  chil- 
dren of  the  town.  Here  too  some  cities  built  separate  high 
schools  for  boys  and  girls,  but  the  smaller  and  newer  towns 
generally  admitted  the  girls  to  the  boys'  high  school  as  the 
better  arrangement. 

Colleges  and  Universities.  —  Places  of  higher  education 
also  increased  with  the  spread  of  the  population  west  of  the 
Alleghanies  and  with  the  growing  prosperity  of  the  whole 
country.  The  churches  were  especially  active  in  establishing 
colleges  for  the  frontier  communities.  The  movement  did 
not  stop  here.  North  Carolina  in  1789  and  South  Carolina 
in  1 80 1  had  begun  the  practice  of  estabhshing  a  university 
at  state  expense.  With  the  organization  of  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Michigan,  and  Illinois,  the  United  States  adopted  the  plan  of 
giving  to  each  new  state  or  territory  lands,  from  the  sale  of 

^  There  were  many  small  private  schools  for  girls,  but  few  could  afford  to 
attend  them. 

2  See  page  68.  A  few  schools  which  were  really  high  schools  had  been  estab- 
lished in  colonial  days,  but  usually  boys  prepared  for  college  at  the  private 
academies. 


QUESTIONS 


343 


which  they  were  to  start  a  state  university.^  In  1819,  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  Jefferson,  Virginia  also  established  a 
university.  These  institutions  had  very  small  resources,  and 
were  little  more  than  high  schools. 

None  of  the  new  coUeges  admitted  women,  nor  in  fact  did 
any  of  the  older  eastern  colleges.^  Many  people  thought  that 
women  should  confine  their 
studies  to  elementary  subjects 
and  their  activities  to  the  affairs 
of  the  home,  and  even  more 
doubted  the  ability  of  women  to 
succeed  in  the  studies  of  the 
college.  But  the  founders  of 
Oberlin  College  believed  that 
women  should  have  the  same 
opportunity  as  men,  and  in  1833 
admitted  both  on  the  same 
terms.  The  movement  for  the 
education  of  women  spread,  at 
first  chiefly  through  the  founding 
of  seminaries.  Of  these  the  most 
famous  were  the  Mount  Holyoke  Seminary,  estabhshed  by 
Mary  Lyon  at  South  Hadley,  Massachusetts,  and  the  Troy 
Female  Seminary  by  Emma  Willard  at  Troy,  New  York. 


Mary  Lyon 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  difficult  problem  did  Jackson  have  to  face?  Why  had  the  South 
at  first  supported  a  protective  tariff?  Why  did  it  later  oppose  one?  What 
authority  did  Calhoun  think  should  be  the  final  judge  of  the  powers  of  the 
national  government? 

2.  What  step  did  South  Carolina  take  in  1832?  What  different  views  did 
Calhoun  and  Webster  hold  about  the  Union?    What  did  Jackson  say  he  would 

^  This  plan  was  first  used  by  the  United  States  in  the  sale  of  land  to  the  Ohio 
Company,  in  1787,  giving  two  townships  for  a  university. 

^  The  University  of  Iowa,  founded  in  1856,  was  the  first  state  university  to 
open  its  doors  to  women. 


344       PROBLEMS   OF   THE   NEW   DEMOCRACY 

do  if  South  Carolina  resisted  a  law  of  the  United  States?     What  was  Clay's 
compromise?     Why  did  both  parties  to  the  dispute  think  they  had  won? 

3.  Where  else  did  men  talk  about  nullifying  national  acts?  How  was 
trouble  with  the  northeastern  states  avoided? 

4.  What  other  difficult  question  did  Jackson  have  to  meet? 

5.  Why  was  the  investment  of  so  much  money  in  canals  a  mistake?  Who 
invented  the  locomotive?  Where  was  it  first  used  in  the  United  States?  What 
things  were  the  early  locomotives  unable  to  do  which  the  improved  later  ones 
could  do? 

6.  What  cities  soon  had  railroads?  Why  did  the  building  of  railroads  give 
the  states  much  trouble? 

7.  Why  was  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  unpopular?  How  did  it  come 
to  an  end?     Why  did  destroying  the  bank  bring  on  "wild-cat"  banking? 

8.  What  measure  did  Jackson  adopt  which  made  the  "get-rich-quick"  fever 
worse?  What  remedy  did  Jackson  try  next?  How  did  the  panic  of  1837  affect 
the  country? 

9.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  workingmen.  How  did  the  govern- 
ment at  first  deal  with  such  organizations?  What  were  the  unions  seeking  to 
do?  What  two  great  reforms  did  working  people  bring  about  with  the  help 
of  reformers? 

ID.  How  were  the  western  states  aided  in  founding  public  schools?  What 
new  class  was  admitted  into  the  schools?  Why  did  most  towns  admit  boys 
and  girls  to  the  same  school?  What  higher  school  did  the  towns  begin  estab- 
lishing a  little  later? 

II.  How  did  the  new  states  secure  colleges  and  universities?  Which  was 
the  first  state  to  have  a  university  of  its  own?  Which  was  the  first  college  to 
admit  women  on  the  same  terms  as  men? 

EXERCISES 

1 .  Do  we  have  a  protective  tariff  to-day?  Prepare  a  list  of  articles  protected 
by  import  duties. 

2.  The  members  of  the  class  should  learn  when  the  first  railroad  was  built  in 
their  region.  Did  the  state,  the  county,  the  township,  or  the  town  help 
build  it? 

3.  Learn  about  some  local  trade  union,  when  it  was  founded,  its  size,  and 
objects. 

4.  What  caused  the  great  panic  of  1837? 

5.  What  schools  of  higher  education  does  the  state  support?  Where  are 
they  located?  When  were  they  founded?  Do  they  admit  both  men  and 
women? 

6.  The  members  of  the  class  should  select  the  event  mentioned  in  this 
chapter  which  they  think  the  most  important,  giving  the  reasons  why  they 
think  it  so  important. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

NEIGHBORING    COUNTRIES   BRING    ON    NEW    QUESTIONS 

^  The  Spaniards  in  Texas.  —  The  Repubhc  of  Mexico  bor- 
dered the  United  States  on  the  southwest.  Texas  was  the 
nearest  of  its  provinces.  The  Spanish  had  known  of  Texas 
since  Coronado's  famous  journey,  but  had  done  almost  nothing 
toward  its  settlement.  Enterprising  priests  and  their  helpers 
had  built  up  several  Indian  mission  villages,  as  they  did  in 
New  Mexico  and  California,  where  they  taught  the  Indians 
the  Catholic  religion  and  the  methods  of  work  of  civilized 
men.  The  Indians  did  not  like  restraint  and  often  broke 
away,  resuming  their  old  nomadic  life.  The  Spanish  ex- 
plorers in  Texas  were  not  followed  by  eager  settlers  as 
explorers  were  in  the  United  States.  Two  or  three  small 
white  settlements,  the  chief  one  at  San  Antonio,  formed  the 
only  centers  of  Spanish  colonization. 

Pioneers  open  a  New  Region  for  Americans.  —  Moses 
Austin  and  his  son  Stephen  were  the  pioneers  who  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  settlement  of  Texas.  Moses  Austin 
had  moved  from  his  birthplace  in  Connecticut  to  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  then  to  western  Virginia,  and  on  to  Missouri, 
where  he  founded  a  colony  on  what  was  still  foreign  soil. 
With  the  restlessness  of  the  pioneer,  he  and  his  son  made 
plans  for  another  colony  in  Texas.  Frontiersmen  were 
crowding  to  the  western  borders  of  the  United  States  in 
search  of  land.  Texas  offered  them  all  that  was  desired  — 
fertile  land,  a  mild  and  healthful  climate,  and  abundant 
waterways  for  travel  and  trade. 


346    RELATIONS  WITH  NEIGHBORING  COUNTRIES 

In  1820  the  Austins  applied  for  permission  to  settle  in  Texas 
and  for  grants  of  land.  The  Mexicans,  who  became  inde- 
pendent the  following  year,  made  generous  terms.  The 
Austins  had  asked  for  six  hundred  and  forty  acres  of  land  for 
each  head  of  a  family.  They  were  given  seven  times  as  much, 
with  an  additional  allowance  for  the  wife,  children,  and  slaves 
of  each  family.  No  wonder  that  the  pioneers  found  it  easy 
to  persuade  men  to  go  to  the  new  west!     Moses  Austin  died 


San  Antonio  in  i 


before  the  colonists  were  ready  to  start  for  the  new  lands, 
but  his  son  carried  out  the  plan.  The  httle  Spanish  settle- 
ments of  about  3,000  were  increased  fourfold  in  less  than 
seven  years.  This  was  only  the  beginning.  Most  of  the  new 
settlers  were  from  the  United  States,  and  chiefly,  too,  from 
the  southern  part.  Many  of  them  were  planters  with  slaves, 
who  planned  to  raise  cotton.  Thus  the  slave  system  spread 
farther  westward. 

Another  War  of  Independence.  —  The  people  of  Texas 
soon  had  trouble  with  the  government  of  Mexico.  In  many 
ways  it  was  the  old  story  of  discontent,  revolution,  and  final 
independence.  The  Mexicans  tried  to  stop  immigration  from 
the  United  States,  abolished  slavery,  and  withdrew  nearly  all 
the  grants  of  land.     The  Texans  paid  no  attention  to  these 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  TEXAS 


347 


laws,  kept  the  frontier  open  by  force,  and  continued  to  bring 
in  slaves.  A  war  for  independence  followed.  In  this  David 
Crockett,  a  famous  frontiersman,  lost  his  life.  Volunteers 
poured  in  from  the  southern  states  to  help  the  Texans.  Their 
leader  was  General  Sam  Houston,  a  friend  of  Andrew  Jack- 
son. In  1836  Houston  won 
a  decisive  victory  at  San 
Jacinto,  capturing  the 
President  of  Mexico  and 
destroying  his  entire  army. 
This  ended  the  war.  Texas 
adopted  a  form  of  govern- 
ment resembling  that  of 
the  United  States.  It  con- 
tained, however,  provisions 
expressly  forbidding  the 
emancipation  of  slaves. 

The  Republic  of  Texas, 
1836-45.  —  The  new  repub- 
lic claimed  the  territory 
lying  along  the  Gulf  coast 
from  the  borders  of  the  United  States  to  the  Rio  Grande 
River.  It  was  large  enough  to  contain  45  states  like  Massa- 
chusetts, or  larger  than  Great  Britain  and  France  taken 
together.  Mexico  did  not  acknowledge  that  Texas  was 
independent,  much  less  that  its  boundaries  extended  to  the 
Rio  Grande.  But  Texas  was  in  no  more  danger  of  being 
reconquered  by  Mexico  than  Mexico  and  the  other  Spanish 
American  republics  were  of  being  reconquered  by  Spain. 

Shall  Texas  be  annexed?  —  In  1836  the  people  of  Texas 
asked  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state.  A  few  years 
earlier  every  section  of  the  United  States  had  wanted  to 
acquire  Texas.  Presidents  Adams  and  Jackson  had  in  turn 
tried  to  purchase  it  from  Mexico.     Now  the  request  of  Texas 


Map  of  the  Republic  of  Texas 
Showing  territory  claimed  by  Texas. 


348    RELATIONS  WITH  NEIGHBORING  COUNTRIES 

was  rejected.  Since  the  quarrel  in  Congress  over  slavery  in 
the  Louisiana  Territory  and  the  Missouri  Compromise,  many 
northern  people  were  unwilling  to  admit  any  territory  where 
slave  laborers  could  work  profitably.  Others  were  anxious 
to  avoid  further  dispute  over  the  subject.  Besides,  Presi- 
dent Van  Buren  thought  that  the  United  States  ought  not 
to  take  territory  from  a  friendly  neighbor,  for  Mexico  con- 
tinued to  claim  Texas.  There  the  matter  rested  for  several 
years.  Mexico,  however,  made  no  serious  effort  to  reconquer 
her  lost  province. 

Our  Canadian  Neighbors  secure  Self-Govemment.  —  The 
war  of  Texas  for  independence  was  scarcely  over  when  a  strug- 
gle broke  out  in  Canada.  In  Lower  Canada,  or  the  Province 
of  Quebec  —  the  old  French  colony  —  a  large  majority  of  the 
people  were  descendants  of  the  original  French  population. 
Upper  Canada,  now  Ontario,  had  been  settled  by  EngKsh- 
speaking  people  from  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
In  both  Canadas  British  officials,  supported  by  the  older 
British  famihes,  governed.  The  French  and  the  recent 
immigrants  were  left  out.  In  1837  the  French  took  up  arms. 
Some  of  their  leaders  hoped  to  establish  an  independent 
republic  at  Quebec.  A  few  of  the  Upper  Canadians  also  rose 
in  rebellion,  seeking  to  secure  a  share  in  the  government. 
Both  rebellions  were  put  down,  but  England  took  warning, 
doubtless  recalHng  the  manner  in  which  she  had  lost  thir- 
teen colonies  in  America.  The  two  Canadian  provinces  were 
united,  and  then  permitted  to  govern  themselves.  In  name 
they  were  still  under  the  Enghsh  crown;  in  fact  they  formed 
a  free  republic.  The  other  British  colonies  in  America  — 
Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Prince  Edward  Island  —  as 
well  as  other  English  colonies  in  Australia  and  South  Africa 
soon  gained  the  same  privileges  without  a  struggle. 

The  Westward  Movement  in  Canada.  —  Canada,  as  well  as 
the  United  States,  had  a  westward  movement.     While  the 


CANALS  AND  THE  NORTHWEST  349 

Quebec  and  Montreal  regions  remained  chiefly  French,  thou- 
sands of  immigrants  from  the  British  Isles  went  annually  to 
Upper  Canada.  Others  left  their  small  or  worn-out  farms 
in  New  England,  New  York,  or  Pennsylvania,  and  moved 
across  the  border.  The  nearness  and  cheapness  of  the  lands 
attracted  many  who  dreaded  the  longer  journey  into  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  The  same  steady  stream  of  pioneers 
pushed  to  the  frontier  on  each  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
the  Great  Lakes.  Canals  were  built  around  the  falls  in  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Welland  Canal  between  Lake  Erie  and 
Lake  Ontario  made  the  north  shore  as  accessible  to  the  sea  by 
way  of  Quebec,  as  the  south  was  by  the  Erie  Canal  through 
New  York. 

The  Hudson  Bay  Company  in  the  Northwest.  —  The  settlers 
never  went  far  from  the  St.  I^awrence  waterway.  The  great 
Northwest  was  still  unsettled — the  haunt  of  the  trapper  and 
the  fur  trader.  The  lonely  stations  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany stretched  from  the  outskirts  of  Upper  Canada  to  Hudson 
Bay  and  Alaska  and  Oregon.  The  company's  officers  opposed 
settlement,  for  that  would  disturb  the  work  of  the  trapper  and 
the  Indian  trader.  But  they  had  little  fear  for  the  security 
of  their  vast  domain.  Certainly  no  one  then  dreamed  of 
farming  in  the  cold  northern  land.  The  only  signs  of  coming 
conflict  with  the  pioneer  were  on  the  Columbia  River  in 
Oregon. 

Trail  Makers.  —  In  America  land-seeking  never  ceased. 
Pioneers  followed  the  trail  of  the  Indian  and  the  trapper, 
and  carried  civilization  into  Arkansas,  Missouri,  and  Iowa. 
In  the  Rocky  Mountains,  fur  traders  from  St.  Louis  were  the 
advance  guard.  As  a  century  earlier  such  men  had  made 
their  way  through  the  Alleghanies  into  Ohio  and  Kentucky, 
they  now  marked  out  trails  across  the  prairies  and  found  the 
passes  through  the  Rocky  Mountain  barrier.  The  Oregon 
Trail  followed  the  Missouri  and  the  Platte  Rivers,  across  the 


350    RELATIONS  WITH  NEIGHBORING  COUNTRIES 


mountains  at  South  Pass  into  Oregon.  At  Westport 
Landing  on  the  Missouri  River,  now  Kansas  City,  a  trail 
started  which  extended  700  miles  across  the  prairies  to 
Sante  Fe.  A  third,  the  California  Trail,  branched  from 
the  Oregon  Trail. 

On  the  Oregon  Trail.  —  The  boldest  pioneers  in  the  United 
States  followed  the  Oregon  Trail  to  Oregon.  Missionaries 
to  the  Indians  entered  soon  after  the  trappers  and  traders, 


The  Principal  Western  Trails 

and  then  settlers  entered.  Many  men  went  out  of  pure  love 
of  adventure,  as  one  quaintly  said,  '^Because  the  thing 
wasn't  fenced  and  nobody  dared  to  keep  'em  out."  For 
whatever  reason  they  migrated  to  Oregon,  they  were  mak- 
ing it  real  American  soil  more  rapidly  than  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  was  making  it  English. 

For  protection  against  the  Indians  the  emigrants  journeyed 
in  caravans.  Each  family  traveled  with  its  household  goods 
in  a  large  canvas-covered  wagon,  called  a  prairie  schooner, 
much  like  the  Conestoga  wagon  of  the  earher  frontier. 
Riding  horses  were  taken  for  use  on  the  way,  and  cattle  for 
stock  in  the  new  country.  Each  man  had  his  duties  as  scout, 
hunter,  or  watchman  for  the  party.  The  caravan  camped 
at  night  where  water  and  grazing  land  could  be  found,  with 


AMERICANS   SETTLE  OREGON 


351 


r^ 


wagons  drawn  up  like  a  circular  fort.  By  day  they  moved 
slowly  over  the  prairies  and  the  mountain  trails.  Such  a 
pilgrimage  lasted  three  or  four  months.  Births  and  weddings 
and  deaths  were  frequent  interruptions  of  such  little  migrat- 
ing worlds.  Francis  Parkman  has  told  the  story  of  hfe  on 
the  Oregon  Trail  as  he 
saw  it  in  1846. 

Americans  settle 
Oregon.  —  In  1843  the 
settlers  in  Oregon,  in 
true  pioneer  style, 
formed  a  government 
for  themselves  and  so 
laid  the  foundations  for 
later  states  in  the  Far 
West.  Explorers,  mis- 
sionaries, and  pioneers 
had  seemingly  won 
southern  Oregon,  at 
least,  for  the  United 
States.  Both  England 
and  the  United  States 
claimed  the  whole  ter- 
ritory from  California 
to  Alaska,  and  for  the  time  being  held  it  jointly.  A  few 
American  statesmen  thought  that  nature  had  fixed  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  bordered  as  they  were  with  deserts  of 
sand,  as  the  final  western  limit.  They  scoffed  at  the 
settlement  of  Oregon  and  opposed  its  annexation.  Others 
held  a  different  opinion.  Senator  Thomas  Benton,  himself  a 
pioneer  of  Missouri,  championed  the  cause  of  Oregon  in  Con- 
gress. He  had  great  faith  in  the  future  of  the  West,  even  to 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  The  majority  of  the  American 
people  agreed  with  him.     They  even  talked  about  war  with 


Pass  through  the  Mountains  on  the 
Oregon  Trail 
Sweetwater  Gap 


352    RELATIONS  WITH  NEIGHBORING  COUNTRIES 

England,  asserting  that  they  must  have  all  the  territory  south 

of  the  parallel  54°  40'  ^'or  fight." 

Boundary   Disputes.  —  John   Tyler   was    then   President. 

He  had  been  elected  as  Vice-President,  but  General  William 

Henry  Harrison,  the  Whig  candidate  who  had  won  the  elec- 
tion of  1840,  died  within  a 
month  after  his  inauguration. 
Tyler  had  more  sympathy  with 
the  Democrats  than  with  the 
Whigs.  The  only  Whig  who 
remained  in  his  cabinet  was 
Webster.  In  1842  Webster  sign- 
ed a  treaty  with  the  British 
minister  Ashburton  settling  the 
boundary  dispute  on  the  north- 
ern border  of  Maine.    Like  most 

agreements    of    that   kind,    the 
Daniel  Webster  . 

treaty  was  a  compromise,  each 

side  giving  up  its  extreme  claims.      No  progress  was  made 
in  deciding  the  Oregon  question. 

On  the  question  of  Texas,  Webster  and  Tyler  did  not  agree, 
for  Tyler  was  anxious  to  annex  Texas.  Calhoun  was,  accord- 
ingly, made  Secretary  of  State,  and  he  signed  a  treaty  of 
annexation  with  Texas.  When  it  was  sent  to  the  Senate  for 
approval,  the  senators  voted  against  it  35  to  16.  This  made 
the  question  an  issue  in  the  election  of  1844.  Clay,  the  Whig 
candidate,  had  been  opposed  to  annexation,  while  the  platform 
of  James  K.  Polk,  the  Democratic  candidate,  declared  not  only 
that  Texas  should  be  annexed,  but  also  that  the  whole  of 
Oregon  to  the  parallel  54°  40'  should  be  held.  Polk  wished, 
furthermore,  to  gain  California.  He  was  successful  in  the 
election,  although  he  had  only  40,000  votes  more  than  Clay. 
This  meant  that  Texas  would  surely  be  annexed,  and  Oregon 
and  California,  too,  if  Polk  could  find  a  way  to  obtain  them. 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES  353 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  had  the  Spaniards  done  toward  colonizing  Texas?  What  Ameri- 
tan  formed  a  plan  for  the  settlement  of  Texas?  What  terms  was  he  able  to 
obtain  from  Mexico?  Why  were  the  Mexicans  so  liberal?  What  success  had 
the  Austins? 

2.  What  were  the  causes  of  the  Texan  war  of  independence?  How  long 
did  Texas  remain  an  independent  republic?  Why  was  the  request  of  Texas 
for  annexation  at  first  rejected  by  the  United  States? 

3.  What  caused  the  rebellion  in  Canada  in  1837?  What  changes  did  Great 
Britain  make  in  the  government  of  Canada?  Where  else  were  liberal  privileges 
of  government  allowed? 

4.  Describe  the  westward  movement  in  Canada.  From  what  parts  of  the 
United  States  did  emigrants  go  to  Canada?  Where  did  they  settle?  Why 
did  they  go  there  in  preference  to  the  western  part  of  the  United  States? 

5.  What  region  did  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  occupy?  Where  were  the 
fur  traders  coming  into  conflict  with  the  pioneers? 

6.  What  new  barrier  did  the  trail-makers  pass?  What  trails  did  they 
make? 

7.  Describe  emigration  over  the  Oregon  Trail.  What  step  toward  per- 
manent occupation  did  the  Oregon  settlers  take  in  1843? 

8.  What  arrangement  did  the  United  States  have  with  England  about 
Oregon?     What  opinion  did  Americans  have  of  the  country? 

9.  How  was  the  northeastern  boundary  dispute  with  England  finally 
settled? 

10.  What  was  the  main  issue  in  the  presidential  election  of  1844?  What 
did  Polk  and  his  party  wish  to  do? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Review  the  northward  movement  of  Spanish  settlers  from  Mexico.  See 
pages  226-227. 

2.  Compare  the  reasons  for  seeking  independence  in  the  three  Revolutions, 
(i)  Texan,  (2)  Spanish  American,  and  (3)  The  English  Colonies,  pages  164, 
178,  318-319- 

3.  Prepare  a  map  of  Texas,  on  the  same  scale  as  that  of  Texas  in  any  geog- 
raphy, and  place  it  on  a  map  of  the  United  States  with  the  center  on  Nashville. 
What  part  of  the  larger  map  does  the  map  of  Texas  cover?  Compare  the 
area  and  population  of  Texas  with  that  of  Japan. 

Important  Dates: 

1842.   The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  peaceably  settle  the  north- 
eastern boundary  dispute. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
HOW   THE   UNITED    STATES   WON   THE   PACIFIC    COAST 

Annexation  of  Texas.  — The  Democrats,  victorious  in  the 
election  of  1844,  did  not  wait  until  Polk  was  inaugurated 
before  carrying  through  the  annexation  of  Texas.  Some  of 
them  beheved  the  rumors  which  were  flying  about  that  Eng- 
land was  preparing  to  acquire  CaHfornia  and  possibly  Texas. 
As  they  did  not  have  votes  enough  in  the  Senate  to  ratify  a 
treaty  of  annexation  with  the  Republic  of  Texas,  they 
adopted  the  plan  of  annexing  it  by  a  resolution  passed  both 
by  the  House  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate.  The  vote 
in  the  Senate  was  close— 27  to  25.  The  resolution  was 
passed  March  i,  1845,  and  was  accepted  by  Texas  in 
December. 

Annexation  alone  would  probably  not  have  brought  on  a 
war  with  Mexico,  but  Polk  had  other  plans  which  did.  He 
insisted  that  the  Rio  Grande  River,  instead  of  the  Nueces 
River,  was  the  southern  boundary  of  the  new  state.  He  also 
supported  the  Texans  in  claiming  that  Texas  included  at 
least  part  of  New  Mexico.  Furthermore,  he  meant  to  have 
California,   by  purchase,   if  possible,   but  at  all  events   to 

have  it. 

The  California  Question.  —  California  in  1845  was  an  out- 
lying, neglected  province  of  Mexico.  Its  missions  had  fallen 
into  decay  and  most  of  the  Indians  had  left  the  mission  vil- 
lages. The  inhabitants  were  mainly  Spaniards  and  Mexicans 
occupied  in  raising  cattle.  Cahfornia  was  worth  much  more 
than  the  $25,000,000  Polk  was  ready  to  give,  but  that  was 
not  the  reason   why  the   Mexicans    did  not  wish   to   sell 


THE   CALIFORNIA  QUESTION 


355 


When  Polk  sent  a  special  agent  to  bargain  with  them,  they 
would  not  receive  him  and  began  to  prepare  for  war.  Polk 
now  determined  to  seize  the  territory  between  the  Nueces 
and  the  Rio  Grande.  He  also  planned  to  ask  Congress  to 
declare  war  because  the  Mexicans  would  not  receive  his 
representative.     He  had  a  real  grievance  in  the  long  delay  of 


View  of  San  Francisco  in  1847 
With  American  ships  in  the  harbor 


the  Mexicans  to  pay  damages  for  American  property  which 
they  had  destroyed  during  the  civil  wars  since  the  overthrow 
of  the  Spanish  government. 

Outbreak  of  War.  —  The  Mexicans  soon  gave  him  a  better 
excuse.  When  General  Zachary  Taylor,  upon  Polk's  orders, 
advanced  to  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Mexicans 
attacked  him.  As  soon  as  Polk  heard  of  the  attack  he  placed 
the  blame  for  war  upon  the  Mexicans,  declaring  in  a  message 
to  Congress  that,  "Mexico  has  passed  the  boundary  of  the 
United  States,  has  invaded  our  territory,  and  shed  American 
blood  upon  the  American  soil."  Congress  did  not  declare 
war  upon  Mexico,  but  adopted  an  act  ^'for  the  prosecution 


356       THE  WINNING  OF  THE  PACIFIC   COAST 

of  the  -existing  war."  The  anti-slavery  men  were  violently 
opposed  to  the  war,  because  they  beheved  its  purpose  was  to 
add  more  territory  in  which  slaves  could  be  held. 

The  Oregon  Compromise.  -  As  soon  as  Polk  knew  that  he 
was  likely  to  have  a  war  with  Mexico  on  his  hands,  he  was 
wilhng  to  give  up  the  extreme  claims  of  the  Umted  States 

in  the  dispute  with  Great 
Britain  over  Oregon.    If  he 
insisted  on  demanding,  as 
his  party  had  done  in  the 
recent    election,   "  54°   4o' 
or  fight,"   he  might  have 
drawn  the  country  into  a 
war  with  England,  and  that 
was  not  the  same  as  a  war 
with  Mexico.     Polk,  there- 
fore,    quietly     offered     to 
accept  the  49th  parallel  as 
the     dividing     line.     This 
parallel  was   the   northern 
boundary    of    the   United 


xm^r^  line  by  treaty  with  Spain,  1819.  g 
M    E    xV    C    O 

The  Oregon  Compromise 


states  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  same  offer  had 
been  made  several  times  since  1818,  but  the  Enghsh  had 
not  been  ready  to  accept  it.  The  treaty  was  niade  m 
Tune  1846.  The  bargain  was  fair  to  both  sides  and  a  wise 
settlement  of  the  dispute.  The  territory  included  the 
present  states  of  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho  _ 

The  War  with  Mexico,  1846-47. -The  war  with  Mexico 
lasted  less  than  two  years,  though  this  was  longer  than  PoU. 
had  expected.  General  Taylor  took  possession  of  the  sparsely 
settled  provmces  of  northern  Mexico  after  hard  fightmg  at 
Monterey  and  Buena  Vista.  General  Kearny  led  a  smaller 
force  from  Fort  Leavenworth  over  the  Sante  Fe  Trail  to 
CaUfornia,  seizing  New  Mexico  on   the  way..     He   found 


THE  WAR  WITH  MEXICO 


357 


California  already  in  the  hands  of  an  American  naval  force. 
It  could  hardly  be  called  the  conquest  of  California,  for  there 
was  no  Mexican  army  to  conquer  and  the  Californians  offered 
little  resistance. 

In  1847  Polk  sent  General  Winfield  Scott  to  make  a  direct 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


100   800   800   400   600 


Map  of  the  Mexican  War 


attack  on  the  capital  of  Mexico.  Scott  followed  closely  the 
route  of  Cortes  into  the  heart  of  the  country.  The  natives 
outnumbered  the  invaders  and  fought  with  all  the  fury  of 
the  Aztecs,  but  the  better  organization,  discipline,  and  leader- 
ship of  the  American  troops  won.  The  ancient  capital  of 
Mexico  was  taken  and  the  last  army  of  resistance  broken  up. 


3s8        THE  WINNING  OF  THE  PACIFIC   COAST 

Terms  of  Peace  with  Mexico,  1848.  -  In  1848  Polk  made 
his  own  terms  of  peace  with  the  feeble  government  which 
was  left  in  Mexico.  Many  urged  that  all  of  Mexico  be 
annexed,  but  Polk  was  satisfied  to  leave  the  unfortunate 
repubUc  independent,  although  humiliated  and  crippled  He 
compelled  the  Mexican  government  to  acknowledge  that  the 
Rio  Grande  River  was  the  boundary  of  Texas  and  to  give 
up  New  Mexico  and  California;  He  had  been  ready  to 
pay  something  for  this  territory,  and  he  now  agreed  to  give 


f  Sacramento  in  1848 

$15,000,000  directly,  besides  $3,500,000  to  those  Americans 
who  claimed  damages  from  Mexico.^  ,    .  ,u. 

Discovery  of  Gold  in  California,  1848.  -  One  part  of  the 
new  territory  awakened  immediate  interest.  A  few  days 
before  Mexico  agreed  to  the  terms  of  peace,  gold  was  discov- 
ered in  California.  Some  laborers  engaged  in  building  a  saw- 
mill in  the  Sacramento  Valley  turned  up  the  earth  and  found 
yellow  grains  which  proved  to  be  gold.  They  soon  discovered 
more  widely  scattered  in  the  sand.  The  news  spread.  Saw- 
mS  farms!  and  shops  lost  their  interest  for  the  settlers  of 

.  Trouble  arose  over  the  location  of  the  boundary  between  the  Rio  Grande 


11/  IW 

\^  \\^]i%R  Jljl   T  _v^l     ^,S      H  _[  _A_  M. 


1^'i 


T  f  f  R     R     I    t)   0  "^  V-i^P»%l 


S  S^   U,  R  I 

/T  E  R  [^1  T'O  R  Y 


MAP  SHOWING  THE 
TERRITORY   ACQUIRED 

FROM    MEXICO 

AS  THE  RESULT  OF 

THE  MEXICAN  WAR 

I 


117 


Longitude    West 


107  from    Greenwich 


DISCOVERY  OF   GOLD   IN  CALIFORNIA         359 

California.  All  were  abandoned.  Even  the  courts  were  closed 
for  want  of  anybody  to  attend  them.  A  ship  which  came  to 
anchor  in  San  Francisco  Bay  was  immediately  deserted  by 
the  crew.  The  captain  saw  nothing  better  to  do  and  set  off 
for  the  diggings,  leaving  his  ship  under  the  care  of  his  wife. 
Within  a  year  $5,000,000  worth  of  gold  had  been  taken  out  and 
during  the  next  ten  years  nearly  one  hundred  times  as  much. 
Many  of  the  American  people,  therefore,  looked  upon  the 
war  with  Mexico  as  a  piece  of  good  fortune. 

"The  Forty-Niners."  —  The  discovery  of  gold  in  Califor- 
nia gave  the  westward  movement  a  new  turn.  The  adven- 
turers who  went  out  the  next  year,  the  ''Forty-niners,"  were 


WA!^--"^i^d^M 


The  Overland  Route  to  California 


more  like  the  Argonauts  of  old  or  De  Soto's  men  seeking  the 
El  Dorado  in  North  America  than  the  other  pioneers.  Emi- 
grants from  Europe  and  from  the  eastern  states  sailed  around 
Cape  Horn  or  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Those  who 
went  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  rode  mules  across  the 
narrow  pass,  braving  the  dangers  of  tropical  fever  and  of 
robber  bands.  Steamboats,  which  were  just  coming  into  use 
for  long  voyages,  found  crowds  at  New  York  and  Panama 
clamoring  for  passage. 

The  favorite  route  for  most  American  immigrants  started 
on  the  Missouri  and  followed  the  Oregon  Trail  and  its  branch 
to  Cahfornia.  Caravans  of  prairie  schooners,  cavalcades  of 
horsemen,  the  poorer  adventurers  afoot,  dotted  the  trail  on 
the  desert  ^plains.  Their  number  made  the  Oregon  migra- 
tion seem  smaU  by  comparison.     On  the  trail  the  "Forty- 


36o       THE  WINNING  OF  THE  PACIFIC   COAST 


niners"  passed  Salt  Lake  where  the  Mormons/  a  new  reli- 
gious sect,  were  irrigating  the  sage-brush  plain  and  turning  it 
into  fertile  farm-land.  They  had  discovered  the  true  source 
of  wealth  as  the  Cahfornians  were  later  to  learn. 

A  few  of  the  ''Forty-niners"  found  for- 
tunes, but  most  of  them  made  barely 
enough  to  pay  their  expenses,  and  all  suf- 
fered hardships  in  fever-ridden,  half- 
famished  camps.  Prices  rose  faster  than 
gold  could  be  dug  to  meet  them.  Spades 
and  shovels  were  $io  apiece;  a  shirt  cost 
$40;  a  candle,  $3;  a  barrel  of  pork,  $200. 
The  average  profit  in  digging  gold  never 
exceeded  $1,000  a  year. 

The  discovery  of  gold  affected  many 
persons  besides  the  miners  who  went  to 
California.  It  increased  the  amount  of 
money.  Business  men  could  borrow  on 
easier  terms  for  their  enterprises.  The 
consequence  was  a  new  period  of  feverish 
activity,  like  that  which  followed  the  building  of  the  National 
Road,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  first  railroads. 

California  Ready  to  become  a  State.  —  The  population  of 
California  grew  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Within  two  years  it 
had  increased  tenfold.  The  old  Spanish  and  Mexican  pop- 
ulation was  only  a  small  part  of  the  whole.  San  Francisco 
changed  from  a  village  into  one  of  the  large  cities  of  the 
United  States,  w^ith  20,000  inhabitants.  It  was  a  real  babel 
of  languages  —  English,  German,  Spanish,  Hawaiian,  Chi- 
nese, and  Malay.  California  in  1849  formed  a  government  of 
its  own  and  was  ready  to  enter  the  Union.  As  the  people 
were  almost  all  free  workingmen,  it  is  not  surprising  that  they 

^  The  Mormons  built  their  first  "temple"  at  Kirtland,  Ohio,  in  1836.  They 
reached  Utah  in  1847. 


A  Forty -NiNER 


QUESTIONS  361 

forbade  slavery  entirely.  The  desire  of  the  settlers  that 
California  should  be  admitted  to  the  Union  without  slavery 
again  raised  the  slavery  question,  dividing  men  in  the  South 
and  the  North  into  two  hostile  groups.  It  threw  all  other 
questions  into  the  backgound  and  became  the  principal 
political  issue. 

A  Frontier  on  the  Pacific. — The  acquisition  of  CaHfornia 
and  the  estabhshment  of  the  American  claim  to  Oregon 
secured  a  new  frontier.  The  United  States  now  faced  the 
Pacific  Ocean  as  well  as  the  Atlantic.  It  had  ceased  to  be 
chiefly  an  outlying  part  of  Great  Britain  and  Europe,  offering 
new  homes  to  those  who  wished  to  leave  the  old,  and  had 
become  a  world,  looking  eastward  toward  Europe  and  west- 
ward toward  Asia,  desiring  friendship  and  commerce  with 
both.  One  reason  why  the  government  was  so  eager  to  obtain 
California  was  to  open  a  more  direct  trade  with  China  and 
the  Pacific  islands.  In  1844  China  had  agreed  to  permit 
Americans  to  trade  in  five  ports.  Ten  years  later,  Japan, 
also  long  closed  to  foreigners,  opened  ports  to  American 
traders.  American  missionaries  were  already  influential  in 
the  Hawaiian  Islands. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  were  the  Democrats  in  a  hurry  to  annex  Texas?  How  did  they 
bring  it  about? 

2.  What  plans  had  Polk  which  brought  on  war  with  Mexico?  What  real 
grievances  did  the  United  States  have  against  Mexico?  How  did  the  war 
actually  begin?  Who  was  to  blame?  Why  were  the  anti-slavery  men  opposed 
to  the  war? 

3.  How  did  Polk  secure  Oregon?     Did  he  obtain  all  of  the  Oregon  country? 

4.  What  did  Taylor's,  Kearny's,  and  Scott's  armies  accomplish  in  the  war? 
Why  were  they  victorious? 

5.  What  were  Polk's  terms  of  peace  with  Mexico? 

6.  What  event  of  1848  made  the  war  with  Mexico  seem  particularly  timely  to 
many  Americans?     Describe  the  migration  of  the  "Forty-niners." 

7.  What  new  settlement  did  the  "Forty-niners"  pass  on  the  California 


362        THE  WINNING  OF  THE  PACIFIC   COAST 

trail?     How  did  the  majority  of  the  California  gold-seekers  finally  find  wealth; 
How  did  the  discovery  of  gold  affect  business  in  the  United  States? 

8.  Describe  California  in  1850.     Why  did  the  Calif ornians  forbid  slavery] 

9,  What  further  effect  had  expansion  on  the  United  States?     What  foreigr 
trade  privileges  were  gained  about  this  time? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Compare  the  ways  by  which   the  government  of   the  United   State: 
annexed  Louisiana  and  Texas. 

2.  Was  the  war  with  Mexico  honorable  to  the  United  States? 

3.  Why  may  the  migration  of  the  ''Forty-niners"  be  compared  to  the  Argo 
nauts  or  De  Soto's  El  Dorado  seekers? 

4.  Compare  the  area  of  California  with  that  of  some  of  the  older  states. 

Important  Dates: 

1845.  Texas  annexed. 

1846.  Oregon  secured  by  a  compromise  with  Great  Britain,  and  the  wai 

with  Mexico  begins. 
1848.    Discovery  of  gold. 


Sutter's  Fort  in  1848 
Near  which  gold  was  first  found  in  California 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

A   GREAT   DOMAIN,  J^EWl  TOOLS,    AND    WILLING    HANDS 

The  Domain.  —  In  1850  the  territory  of  the  United  States 
stretched  westward  from  the  Mississippi  River  across  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  Most  of  the  region 
was  unoccupied  except  by  roving  tribes  of  Indians.  Iowa  had 
been  a  state  only  four  years;  Wisconsin  only  two.  Minne- 
sota had  become  a  territory  the  year  before.  Where  were 
men  and  women  to  be  found  to  carry  the  line  of  settlement 
across  this  vast  domain?  The  newer  states  apparently 
needed  all  their  people  for  their  own  unfinished  tasks.  If 
men  and  women  could  be  found,  how  were  they  to  reach 
places  so  distant?  The  immigrant  and  the  railroad  were 
the  answers  to  these  questions. 

Railroads.  —  At  the  time  California  was  obtained,  only  a 
few  short  railroad  Hnes  existed  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
None  had  yet  crossed  the  great  Alleghany  ranges  from  the 
East.  Finally,  in  1853,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
reached  WheeHng,  and  the  next  year  the  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road was  completed  to  Pittsburgh.  Already,  in  1852,  two 
railroads  entered  Chicago:  the  Michigan  Central  from  Detroit 
and  the  Michigan  Southern  from  Toledo.  By  1855  travelers 
could  go  by  rail  from  New  York  to  St.  Louis.  During  the 
ten  years  from  1850  to  i860  the  number  of  miles  of  railway 
was  tripled.  If  all  the  railroads  had  been  put  end  to  end  they 
would  have  circled  the  earth,  with  5,000  miles  to  spare. 

The  early  railroads  were  usually  built  with  the  aim  of  con- 
necting the  great  waterways.     This  had  been  the  purpose  of 


364         DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEW  DOMAIN 


the  canals,  but  they  were  closed  by  ice  several  months  each 
year.  The  Pennsylvania  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail- 
roads were  intended  to  connect  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore, 
the  eastern  rivals  of  New  York,  with  the  rivers  of  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  valleys.  The  Michigan  roads  cut  off  the 
long  route  by  the  Straits  of  Mackinac  from  the  lower  lakes 
to  Chicago. 

The  railroads  soon  ceased  to  be  mere  connecting  links. 
They  were  built  even  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson  River  and 


■II MM  Railroads  in  operation  in  18J0  Railroads  completed  between  1850  and  186a 

Railroads  in  Operation  in  the  Northern  States  in  i860 

along  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  challenging  the  steamboat  in  the 
race  for  trade.  As  a  result  new  routes  of  trade  sprang  up, 
independent  of  lake  and  river  and  sea-coast.  The  route  on 
the  Mississippi  River  to  the  Gulf  lost  some  of  its  importance, 
and  the  relations  between  the  West  and  the  East  became 
closer  than  those  between  the  West  and  the  South.  Settle- 
ment, too,  moved  along  these  east  and  west  lines.  The 
railroads  thus  became  an  important  geographical  feature 
added  by  man  to  the  natural  features  of  river,  lake,  and 
mountain. 

The  growth  of  towns  was  affected  by  such  changes.     The 
future  of  a  city  was  doubly  assured  if  it  was  served  by  both 


RAILROADS  AND  TELEGRAPHS 


36s 


water  route  and  railroad.  This  was  especially  true  of  cities 
on  the  Great  Lakes  —  a  water  route  unrivalled  in  the  world. 
After  the  St.  Mary's  ship-canal  and  locks  were  completed, 
steamboats  could  go  from  the  western  end  of  Lake  Superior 
to  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  They  carried  the  iron 
ores  of  the  Lake  Superior  region  to  Chicago,  Detroit,  Cleve- 
land, and  Buffalo.  To  these  cities  the  railroad  brought  the 
coal  of  western  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Illinois.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  they  began  manufacturing  iron  and  steel. 
Chicago,  so  near  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan,  had  a 
further  advantage.  It  was  the  western  end  of  almost  all 
railroads  from  the  East,  and  the  starting-point  of  those  to 
the  newer  West.  As  early  as  1850  a  railroad  ran  west  from 
Chicago  as  far  as  Elgin.  As  the  railroad  decreased  the  im- 
portance of  waterways,  Cincinnati  and  New  Orleans  lost  part 
of  their  supremacy  in  the  trade  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  Telegraph.  —  While  the 
railroad  was  binding  the  country 
together  in  many  directions,  a  net- 
work of  telegraph  wires  was  adding 
to  the  means  of  communication. 
The  telegraph  assisted  the  employ- 
ees of  railroads  in  managing  trains, 
but  it  was  equally  important  in 
enabling  the  business  man  to  send 
orders  or  obtain  information  from 
distant  places  in  a  few  minutes. 

The  inventor  of  the  telegraph 
was  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  a  pro- 
fessor   in    New    York    University. 

He  thought  out  a  plan  for  sending  messages  over  a  wire, 
and  made  a  rough  instrument  which  did  what  he  expected. 
As  he  could  get  no  one  to  help  him  build  a  telegraph  line, 
he  appealed  to  Congress  for  aid.     For  several  years  Congress 


Samuel  F.  B.  Morse 


366       DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    NEW   DOMAIN 


refused  to  grant  money,  but  finally  gave  him  $30,000  with 
which  to  build  an  experimental  line  between  Washington 
and  Baltimore.  This  was  completed  in  1844,  in  time  to 
carry  to  Washington  the  news  of  the  nomination  of  James 
K.  Polk  to  the  Presidency  within  fifteen  minutes  after  the 
Democratic  convention  at  Baltimore  had  reached  its  decision. 
Morse's  triumph  convinced  doubting  business  men.  Private 
companies  built  lines.  In  1848  Ezra  Cornell  completed  a 
line  from  New  York  to  Cleveland,  Toledo,  Detroit,  Chicago, 
and  Milwaukee. 

A  Revolution  in  the  Post-office.  -  A  change  in  the  charges 
made  by  the  post-office  for  carrying  letters  was  almost  as 
important  as  the  invention  of  the  telegraph.  The  rates  had 
been  so  high  that  ordinary  persons  could  not  afford  to  write 

often  to  friends  or 
business  associates 
living  at  a  dis- 
tance. A  single 
sheet  cost  six 
cents  for  30  miles, 
ten  cents  between 
30  and  80  miles, 
and  so  on,  until 
the  cost  rose  to 
25  cents  for  all 
In  185 1  Congress  fixed  the  rate 
Newspapers  were  by 


An  American  Clipper 


distances  over  400  miles. 

at  "three  cents  within  the  country.^ 

this  time  carried  with  the  other  mail,  but  the  rates  for  them 

remained  high. 

Steamships.  —  While  the  railroad  was  providing  for  travel 
from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  interior,  the  steamboat 
was  making  it  easier  to  reach  America.  Sailing  ships  also 
made   the   trip  more    quickly   than  in    earher   days.      The 

^  In  1883  the  rate  of  postage  on  letters  was  reduced  to  two  cents. 


THE  POST-OFFICE  AND   STEAMSHIPS 


367 


Americans  had  learned  to  build  a  ship  called  the  '' clipper, " 
which  could  make  three  voyages  between  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica while  a  British  ship  was  making  two.  These  ships  by 
their  superiority  were  pushing  the  EngHsh  hard  in  the  race 
for  ocean  trade.  They  were  particularly  successful  in  the 
long  voyages  required  in  the  trade  with  China.  Sometimes 
these  splendid  vessels  raced  from  Chinese  ports  to  New  York, 
eager  to  land  the  first  cargoes  of  the  new  crop  of  tea.  But 
the  creation  of  the  iron  steamship  meant  their  ruin  sooner 
or  later. 

In  England  timber  was  scarce,  but  iron  and  coal  were 
cheap.  About  a  quarter  of  the  ships  which  the  English  built 
in  1853  were  of  iron.  Fifteen  years  before  this  a  British 
line  of  steamships  began  regular  trips  between  England 
and  the  Uni- 
ted  States. 
Excellent 
though  the 
clippers  were, 
they  could 
not  compete 
with  the 
steamship. 
The    first 

ocean  steamships  often  required  fifteen  days  for  the  voyage, 
but  by  1847  they  had  lowered  the  time  to  eleven  days. 

New  Tools  for  the  Farm.  —  The  farmer's  task  in  making 
the  land  productive  was  rendered  easier  by  the  invention  of 
new  machinery.  The  sickle  and  scythe  began  to  give  place 
to  the  mowing-machine  and  the  harvester,  and  the  flail  to 
the  threshing  machine.  Horserakes,  cultivators,  and  corn 
planters  appeared.  The  invention  of  harvesting  machinery 
was  chiefly  the  work  of  Cyrus  McCormick  of  Virginia.  His 
father  had  tried  for  years  to  make  a  successful  machine  for 


W»l''^' 


The  Old  Way  of  Reaping 


1» 


368        DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE   NEW   DOMAIN 

cutting  grain,  and  young  McCormick  took  up  the  problem 
where  his  father  left  it.  He  soon  constructed  a  reaper  which 
was  fairly  successful.  After  it  had  been  improved  it  was  able 
to  do  the  work  of  twenty  men,  not  only  cutting  the  grain, 
but  also  binding  it  and  laying  it  in  windrows. 

The  threshing  machine  was  equally  successful.      In  1855 

at  the  World's 
Fair  in  Paris, 
six  threshers  with 
flails  were  set  at 
work  beside  one 
of  the  American 
machines.  In  half 
an  hour  the  ma- 
chine threshed  ten 
times  as  much 
v/heat  as  the  men. 
Such  farm  machinery  increased  the  demand  for  western  land. 
Thus  the  line  of  settlement  moved  westward  faster  than  ever. 
Tools  for  Other  Work.  —  The  settlement  of  the  country 
was  helped  by  the  invention  of  other  tools  which  were  not 
connected  directly  with  farm  work.  The  steam  hammer 
made  the  tasks  of  the  ironworker  easier.  The  planing  machine 
aided  the  carpenter.  The  rotary  or  cyHndrical  press  helped 
the  printer.  Some  newspapers  ventured  to  reduce  the  price 
from  6  cents  a  paper  to  a  cent,  and  declared  that  they  would 
bring  all  the  news  of  the  day  within  the  means  of  everybody.^ 
The  steam-engine  suppHed  them  with  power,  and  the  tele- 
graph brought  in  fresh  news,  and  so  increased  their  useful- 


-^^■^■'#^. 


The  First  Type  of  McCormick  Reaper 


^  The  New  York  Daily  Sun,  1833,  was  the  first  penny  newspaper.  Two  years 
later,  James  Gordon  Bennett  started  another,  the  New  York  Herald.  Horace 
Greeley,  in  1841,  founded  the  New  York  Tribune;  ten  years  later  Henry  J. 
Ra>Tnond  established  the  New  York  Times.  The  price  of  these  was  later 
increased  to  two  cents. 


NEW  INVENTIONS 


369 


ness  as  teachers  of  the  people.  The  newspapers,  in  turn, 
made  profitable  work  for  the  telegraph,  and  hastened  its 
extension  throughout  the  country. 


The  First  Copy  of  "The  Sun"  —  a  Penny  Newspaper 


The  sewing  machine,  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the  newer 
inventions,  was  completed  by  Elias  Howe  in  1846.  He  had 
planned  it  several  years  earlier,  but  was  too  poor  to  pay  the 
cost  of  construction.  His  first  machine  in  a  sewing  race 
distanced  five  of  the  swiftest  hand  sewers.  It  earned  him 
a  fortune  and  lightened  the  burden  of  women.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  sewing  machine  was  soon  used  in  constructing 
machines  for  sewing  leather  and  making  shoes.  Machines 
were  also  invented  which  cut  and 
sewed  button-holes. 

Other  inventions,  cook  stoves,  base- 
burners,  and  furnaces,  made  the  home 
more  comfortable  and  the  work  of  the 
housewife  easier.  Americans  borrowed 
from  Europe  the  invention  of  the 
match.  In  a  multitude  of  ways  the 
needs  of  Hfe  were  met  by  the  ingenu- 
ity of  thoughtful  men  and  women. 
Over  23,000  different  articles  were  patented  between  1850 
and  i860. 

Why  the  Immigrants  Came.  —  The  ways  of  living  in  Europe 
and  Great  Britain  were  changed  as  rapidly  as  in  the  United 


=S^/^' 


Howe's    Sewing 
Machine 


370        DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   NEW   DOMAIN 

States.  Indeed,  in  England  the  factory  system  developed 
much  faster.  Railroads  were  multiplied.  Life  for  the  well- 
to-do  became  more  comfortable,  but  for  the  common  man 
and  his  family  the  lands  of  opportunity  lay  beyond  the  seas. 
They  were  not  the  United  States-  merely,  but  also  Canada, 
Australia,  and  South  Africa.  The  United  States  proved  far 
more  attractive  to  the  European  emigrant  than  all  the  other 
countries  together. 

Between  1845  and  1850  several  events  swelled  the  stream 
of  emigration.  In  1845  ^^^  ^^4^  the  failures  of  crops  caused 
much  distress  in  Great  Britain  and  Europe.  The  potato 
crop,  the  principal  article  of  food  of  the  Irish  peasantry,  was 
a  total  failure.  All  that  private  charity  and  government 
help  could  do  was  not  enough  to  prevent  terrible  suffering. 
Nearly  a  million  persons  perished  from  starvation  or  fever. 
The  government  repealed  the  ''corn''  laws  which  taxed 
grain,  but  this  remedy  came  too  late.  Thousands  sailed  for 
America.  A  quarter  of  the  population  of  Ireland  was  lost 
from  famine,  fever,  and  emigration. 

In  1848  Germany  was  again  in  the  midst  of  a  revolution. 
The  more  progressive  leaders,  weary  of  the  system  which 
gave  power  to  the  rulers  and  to  a  clique  of  nobles,  attempted 
first  to  found  a  new  German  empire  and  then  a  repubhc. 
They  were  defeated  by  the  aristocratic  party  and  many  of 
them  fled  to  the  United  States.  Others  came  to  better  their 
lot.  Between  1846  and  1856  a  million  Germans  entered  the 
country.  Some,  like  Carl  Schurz,  soon  became  leaders  in  its 
political  struggles. 

It  was  not  strange  that  the  new  ''pilgrims"  turned  their 
faces  toward  America,  which  offered  them  cheap  lands,  light 
taxes,  work  for  all,  and  equality  with  their  neighbors.  The 
Irish  commonly  remained  in  the  towns  and  cities  of  the  coast 
states.  The  Germans  went  to  the  frontier  —  Wisconsin, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Texas  — ■  wherever  good  land  was  to  be  had. 


GERMAN  IMMIGRANTS  371 

The  soil  and  climate  and  crops  were  so  much  like  those  of  Ger- 
many that  it  was  easy  to  take  up  the  new  life.  To  be  the 
makers  of  food  products  by  farming,  pickling,  preserving, 
canning,  miUing,  seemed  to  be  their  work.  They  chose  the 
best  farm  lands  and  made  records  as  the  most  successful 
farmers  of  the  country.  They  came  in  such  numbers  that 
they  almost  succeeded  in  making  Wisconsin  a  German  state. 
Some  parts  of  the  West  became  a  New  Germany,  just  as 
Pennsylvania  had  been  in  the  eighteenth  century.  To-day 
a  large  majority  of  the  people  of  Wisconsin  are  German 
immigrants  or  their  descendants. 

Some  Special  Debts  to  the  Germans. — The  Germans  were 
better  taught  than  most  of  the  native  Americans,  because  a 
new  system  of  schools  had  been  established  in  Germany. 
The  skilled  workingmen  and  the  farmers  were  well  trained. 
As  citizens  they  helped  to  make  better  schools  in  the  United 
States.  Furthermore,  American  students  began  to  go  to 
Germany  for  higher  education.  In  still  other  ways  they 
deeply  influenced  American  hfe.  They  had  a  taste  and  love 
for  music  and  painting  and  sculpture  that  few  Americans  had 
at  that  time.  Wherever  they  went  they  became  the  teachers 
of  these  arts.  In  a  multitude  of  ways — by  singing  societies, 
gymnastic  organizations,  open-air  celebrations,  fairs  and 
frohcs  and  festivals  —  they  added  to  the  wholesome  pleasures 
of  life. 

The  older  northern  states  also  contributed  their  share  of 
settlers  to  the  new  West.  Families  were  still  large,  and  the 
sons  and  daughters  accepted  the  common  advice  of  the  time 
''  Go  West,  young  man!  "  ^ 

Share  of  the  South  in  the  New  Activities.  —  The  southern 
states,  especially  the  older  ones,  had  almost  no  share  in  the 
new  activities  which  busied  the  North  and  West.     European 

^  These  words  are  supposed  to  have  first  appeared  in  the  Terre  Haute 
Express,  185 1. 


372        DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    NEW   DOMAIN 


•^r 


.  .^-^^^1^--^ 


Plowing  a  Southern  Cotton  Field 


immigrants  seldom  settled  there,  except  in  border  states 
like  Maryland,  or  in  Missouri  and  Texas  on  the  frontier. 
Factories  were  rarely  established  south  of  Maryland.  The 
slaves,  native  Africans  or  their  descendants,  were  too  igno- 
rant, clumsy,  and  wasteful  to  use  machinery  or  engage  in 
the  higher  kinds  of  farming. 

But  there  was  another  reason  why  few  industries  were  estab- 
lished in  the 
South.  The 
increase  in  the 
demand  for 
cotton,  especi- 
ally in  England 
and  in  New 
England,  con- 
vin  c  ed  the 
southerners  that  their  greatest  profits  would  be  found  in 
cotton  growing.  The  production  increased  from  1,976,000 
bales  in  1840  to  4,675,000  twenty  years  later.  As  the  price 
during  the  same  time  had  increased,  the  gains  of  the  planters 
were  large.  Like  the  sugar  planters  in  the  West  Indies  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  they  could  not  afford  to  build  their 
machinery  or  weave  their  cloth  or  even  raise  their  food. 
Everything  of  that  kind  they  purchased  in  Great  Britain, 
in  Europe,  or  in  the  northern  states.  They  bought,  for 
example,  $5,000,000  worth  of  shoes  a  year  in  Massachusetts. 
The  cottons  which  they  required  to  clothe  their  slaves  were 
obtained  either  in  New  England  or  old  England.  For  this 
reason  others  besides  the  southerners  were  interested  in  the 
production  of  cotton.  Others  also  feared  any  change  in 
the  system  of  labor  which  might  endanger  a  profitable 
trade.  No  wonder  the  southerners  said  that  ^'Cotton  is 
king." 

Slavery  in  the  Border  States.  —  It  would  be  a  mistake  to 


THE   SOUTHERN   STATES 


373 


Picking  Cotton 


suppose  that  slavery  existed  on  every  farm  in  the  South. 
Only  about  one  family  in  five  owned  any  slaves.  The  others 
supported  themselves  and  their  famihes  by  their  own  labor. 
Most  of  the  slaves  .were  in  South  CaroHna,  Georgia,  and  the 
Gulf  states.  Outside  of  the  cotton  belt,  the  greater  part  of 
the  work  was  done  by  free  laborers.  The  plantation  system 
of  using  slave  labor  was  profitable  to  the  owners  only  so  long 
as  fertile  land 
was  cheap  and 
plentiful.  Wher- 
ever that  gave 
out,  slavery 
slowly  broke 
down.  Each 
year  saw  the 
abandonment  of 
old  cotton  fields 

in  the  eastern  states  of  the  South  and  the  establishment  of 
new  plantations  in  the  Gulf  states.  This  could  not  go  on 
forever. 

Before  the  Revolution  slavery  was  common  in  all  colonies, 
North  and  South.  It  slowly  decHned  in  the  North  and 
disappeared.  The  change  was  brought  about  mainly  because 
slaves  had  ceased  to  be  profitable.  Since  1783  it  had  also 
been  slowly  declining  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North 
CaroUna.  In  that  year  negro  slaves  formed  about  one- 
half  the  population  of  Virginia;  in  i860  not  more  than 
one-third.  In  Maryland  free  negroes  did  about  one-half  of 
all  the  work. 

The  question  of  labor  troubled  the  planters  greatly.  All 
their  money  was  invested  in  land  and  slaves.  A  good  field- 
hand  cost  from  $1,500  to  $1,800.  The  planters  knew  that  the 
slaves  were  poor  laborers.  Many  would  have  given  up  their 
slaves  gladly  if  they  could  have  found  free  laborers  upon 


374        DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    NEW   DOMAIN 


whom  they  could  depend,  but  they  did  not  beheve  that  th( 
slaves  would  work  if  freed.  The  abolition  of  slavery,  the> 
thought,  meant  the  ruin  of  the  South. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  unoccupied  territory  did  the  Unitec 
States  possess  in  1850? 

2.  What  railroads  joined  the  East  with  the 
Mississippi  Valley  between  1850  and  i860?  Whal 
was  the  aim  of  the  builders  of  the  first  railroads; 
Of  the  later  ones?  How  did  the  railroads  affecl 
the  routes  of  trade?  The  relations  of  East  anc 
West,  North  and  South? 

3.  How  did  the  railroads  affect  the  growth  o: 
cities?  Why  did  Chicago  become  a  great  cityi 
Buffalo,  Cleveland,  and  Detroit? 

4.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  telegrapl 
lines?  Who  invented  the  telegraph?  How  die 
he  prove  its  usefulness? 

5.  What  change  was  made  in  postal  rates; 
Why  was  the  change  an  important  one? 

6.  What  were  the  "clipper"  ships  doing?  What  kind  of  ships  began  tc 
take  their  place?  Why  did  England  build  iron  steamships  instead  of  wooder 
''clippers"? 

7.  What  farm  machinery  was  invented?  What  effect  had  each  on  farn 
work?  What  tools  were  invented  for  other  work?  How  did  each  affect  the 
work  of  the  shop  or  the  home? 

8.  How  were  the  ways  of  living  changing  in  Europe?  Why  did  immigrants 
come  in  increasing  numbers?  Did  they  leave  Europe  for  any  other  countries 
besides  the  United  States? 

9.  Why  did  the  Irish  migrate  to  America  in  such  numbers?  Why  did 
the  Germans?  What  did  each  do  in  America?  What  special  debt  does  the 
United  States  owe  to  the  Germans?  Who  besides  the  Germans  settled  in  the 
new  western  territories? 

10.  Why  did  the  South  fail  to  share  in  the  new  activities?  Why  did  the 
southern  people  confine  themselves  so  fully  to  cotton  growing?  Did  anybody 
else  profit  from  slave  labor  in  cotton  growing? 

11.  Did  the  majority  of  the  southern  people  own  slaves?  Where  had 
slavery  already  ceased  entirely?  Why  had  it  been  abandoned?  Where  had  it 
partially  broken  down?  How  long  could  slavery  last  in  the  South?  If  the 
slaves  were  such  poor  laborers  why  were  the  southern  people  unwilling  to  free 
them? 


A  Southern  Planter 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES  375 


EXERCISES 

1.  What  states  had  been  formed  west  of  the  Mississippi  besides  those  men- 
tioned in  the  chapter? 

2.  What  cities  have  become  great  through  the  help  of  railroad  lines? 

3.  What  was  the  length  of  time  needed  to  cross  the  ocean  in  colonial  days? 
After  the  beginning  of  regular  steamship  lines? 

4.  What  did  the  Southerners  mean  when  they  declared,  "Cotton  is  king"? 

Important  Dates : 

1844.   Morse  builds  the  first  telegraph  line  from  Washington  to  Baltimore. 
1846.   Elias  Howe  invents  the  sewing  machine.      The  Irish  potato  famine 

starts  a  great  Irish  migration  to  the  United  States. 
1848.   A  revolution  in  Germany  starts  a  great  migration  of  Germans  to 

the  United  States. 


Cotton 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 


THE    QUESTION   OF   SLAVERY 


Slavery  and  the  New  Southwest.  —  The  question  of  slav- 
ery was  not  a  new  political  issue.  It  had  been  discussed 
when  the  Ordinance  of  1787  was  being  prepared.  It  was 
brought  up  again  after  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  and  an 
arrangement  concerning  that  territory  was  embodied  in  the 
Missouri  Compromise.  With  the  acquisition  of  New  Mexico 
and  CaHfornia,  and  with  the  increasing  flood  of  immigrants 
in  the  West,  it  excited  men's  minds  as  never  before. 

Planters  knew  that  the  time  would  come  when  the  old  cot- 
ton lands  would  be  worn  out,  and  new  lands  would  become 
necessary  or  the  investment  in  slaves  would  be  worthless.  In 
1849  the  people  of  California  voted  to  exclude  slavery,  but 
the  southern  leaders  thought  that  a  bargain  might  be  made 
by  which  California  should  be  divided  into  two  states,  and 
slavery  permitted  in  southern  California.  They  had  already 
given  way  as  to  Oregon,  and  Congress  had  prohibited  the 
holding  of  slaves  within  its  Hmits,  but  they  had  no  idea  of 
yielding  in  regard  to  the  Southwest.  Delegates  from  several 
southern  states  met  at  Nashville  in  order  to  express  a  united 
opposition  to  any  plan  of  closing  California  or  New  Mexico 
to  slavery.  Some  leaders  talked  freely  of  their  intention  to 
break  up  the  Union  rather  than  permit  such  a  law. 

Fugitive  Slaves.  —  Nor  was  this  the  only  difference  between 
the  states  with  slaves  and  those  without.  By  the  laws  of  the 
United  States,  if  a  slave  ran  away  his  master  could  pursue 
him  even  into  another  state.    It  was  the  duty  of  United 


NORTHERN  OPPONENTS  OF  SLAVERY 


377 


States  officers  to  help  the  owner  recapture  his  property. 
The  law  was  an  old  one,  having  been  made  in  1793  when 
Washington  was  President.  Slaves,  especially  in  border 
states  like  Maryland,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  .Missouri, 
frequently  ran  away.  Their  masters  found  it  difficult  to 
capture  the  fugitives  because  many  people  in  the  free  states 
were  ready  to  help  them  escape.  The  slave-holders  accord- 
ingly demanded  a  more  severe  law  by 
which  those  who  aided  fugitive  slaves 
might  be  punished. 

Northern  Opponents  of  Slavery.  —  The 
northern  abolitionists  demanded  that  the 
system  of  slavery  should  be  destroyed 
root  and  branch.  WilHam  Lloyd  Garri- 
son was  still  the  leader,  and  in  twenty 
years  of  untiring  agitation  he  had  won 
a  loyal,  though  not  a  very  numerous, 
following.  The  majority  of  the  northern 
people  were  opposed  to  interference  with 
slavery  in  the  states.  Workmen  feared  that  if  the  negroes 
were  freed,  they  would  migrate  to  the  northern  states  in 
such  numbers  as  to  reduce  their  wages.  Business  men  were 
afraid  that  Garrison's  plan  would  ruin  the  South  and  so 
shut  off  the  supply  of  cheap  cotton  and  destroy  the  market 
for  northern  goods.  But  many  northern  people,  who  would 
not  go  so  far  as  the  aboHtionists,  were  anxious  to  stop 
the  spread  of  slavery  into  the  new  territories. 

Those  who  wished  to  prevent  the  spread  of  slavery  were 
called  ''Free-soilers."  Many  of  them  broke  away  from  the 
old  political  parties,  and  in  the  election  of  1848  voted  to  make 
Van  Buren  President.  Lewis  Cass,  the  Democratic  candi- 
date, proposed  to  leave  the  slavery  question  to  the  people 
of  the  territories.  As  they  were  often  called  squatters,  this 
was  called  the  doctrine  of   ''Squatter   Sovereignty."     The 


A  House-Slave  of 
Washington's  Day 


378 


THE  QUESTION  OF   SLAVERY 


Whigs  took  no  stand  on  the  slavery  question,  and  nominated 
for  President  General  Taylor,  the  ''hero  of  Buena  Vista." 
Taylor  was  elected,  but  the  question  was  not  forgotten. 

The  Compromise  of  1850.  —  In  1850  the  moderate  leaders 
of  the  old  parties  united  to  bring  about  a  settlement.     Henry 

Clay,  now  a  very  old  man, 
acted  as  their  spokesman, 
and  proposed  a  comprom- 
ise. It  was  the  third  great 
compromise  that  he  had 
lived  to  propose  when  the 
Union  was  in  danger. 
For  nearly  a  year  Con- 
gress discussed  the  parts 
of  Clay's  plan.  The  ab- 
lest orators  of  America 
spoke.  Calhoun,  wasted 
with  old  age  and  so  feeble 
that  he  could  not  stand, 
sat  while  another  read  his  speech.  A  few  days  afterward 
the  famous  champion  of  the  South  died.  Clay  and  Webster 
appealed  to  men  of  the  North  and  the  South  to  lay  aside 
their  differences  in  order  to  save  the  Union. 

The  Compromise  of  1850  was  an  attempt  to  satisfy  both 
sides,  (i)  By  forbidding  the  buying  and  selling  of  slaves  in 
the  District  of  Columbia,  Clay  hoped  to  please  those  in  the 
North  who  wished  to  abolish  slavery  there.  (2)  By  a  new 
fugitive  slave  law,  he  hoped  to  pacify  southern  slave-holders. 
(3)  By  admitting  California  without  slavery,  he  believed 
the  North  would  be  pleased.  (4)  By  the  provision  that 
Congress  should  not  interfere  regarding  slavery  in  Utah  and 
New  Mexico,^  but  should  leave  the  inhabitants  free  to  decide 
between  free  and  slave  labor,  he  wished  to  end  the  dispute 

^  These  included  Nevada  and  Arizona. 


Henry  Clay 


THE   COMPROMISE   OF   1850 


379 


about  the  new  territory.^  This  last  provision  meant  that 
slave-holders  could  take  their  slaves  into  the  Southwest  and 
have  a  share  in  deciding  the  question  whether  slavery  should 


be  permitted  or  abol- 
ished. The  statesmen 
who  arranged  the 
Compromise  imagined 
that  every  great  dif- 
ference had  been  laid 
to  rest.  Within  a  few 
months  the  old  lead- 
ers, Clay  and  Webster, 
died.  If  the  Compro- 
mise failed,  new  men 
and  new  measures 
must  save  the  Union. 
The  new  men  had 
already    made    them- 


OVERLAim  TO  THE  PACIFIC. 


The  San  Antonio  and  San  Diego  Mail-Line. 

This  Ltne,  whith  has  b«n  in  SilCMSsrul  opcmtian  since  July,  1857, Is  tickriing  PASSENGERS 
through  to  San  Diego  and  San  Francisco,  and  also  to  all  Intermediate  staliooa.  Pa&sengers  &n^ 
Eipress  matter  forwarded  in  NEW  COACHES,  dravn  br»ix  itiulcj,  over  the  entire  length  of  our 
-Line,  excepting  lh«  Colorado  Desert  of  one  hundred  miles,  which  vre  cross  on  mule-back.  Pa*- 
sengers  goaukteeo  in  their  tickets  to  ride  in  Coaches,  excepting  the  one  hundred  mites  abov. 
skated. 

Passengers  Ucketed  through,  from  NEW-ORLEANS,  to  the  followint  points,  via  SAN 
A><TONIO: 


To  Tort  Clark, Pare,  852. 

"  Hudson "  09. 

**  yort  Xiancaster,  "  70. 

**  Davis ••  eo. 

•*  Qttitman,, "  100. 

♦•  Birchville "  100. 

«•  Son  Elizarlo,...  "  100. 

"  El  Paso «  100. 


To  Port  Bliss; Fare,  $100. 

"  La  Mesilla /  "  105. 

"  Fort  PilJmore, •♦  105. 

"Tucson "  135, 

"Fort  Yuma ,  "  162. 

"San  Diego "  190. 

"  Los  Anselos, *'  190. 

"  San  Francisco......  "  200. 


The  Coaches  of  oar  t.ne  leave  semi-monthly  from  each  end,  on  the  9th  and  2<ih  of  each 
Donih,  al  t  o'clock  A.M. 

An  armed  escort  travels  through  the  Indian  country  with  eath  mall  train, fortheprotection 
•f  the  mails  and  poucngers. 

Passengers  are  provided  with  provisions  during  the  trip,  except  wh'ere  the  Coach  stops  al 
gglY'eS      heard  In      the        P'''>li<:  Houses  along  the  Line,  at  wWcheach  passenger  win  pay  for  hi*  own  meal. 

Each  Passenger  is  allowed  thirty  pounds  of  persona)  baggage,. exclusive  of  blankets  an4 
arms. 

Passengers  coming  to  San  Antonio  can  take  the  line  of  malt-steamers  from  New-Orlean. 
five  times  a  week  to  Indianola.  From  the  latter  plac.  there  is  a  daily  lino  of  fourhorse  mail. 
coaches  direct  to  this  place. 


Extra  Baggage,  wlien  earrltdy  V)  cents  per  pound  to  Et  P&sa,and  %\  per  poood  to  San  Diego. 
Passengers  can  obtain  all  necessary  outfits  In  San  Antonio. 

For  further  Information,  and  for  the  purchase  of  tickets,  apply  at  the  oBlce  of  C.  C 
V  AYKE.  ei  Camp  Street,  Netr-Orltans,  or  at  the  Company's  0£6ce,  in  San  Antonia 

G.   H.    GIDDINas.  I  _, 

R.   E.    DOYI^E.  i  I»r«pi-i«»tor<». 

Mode  of  Travel  to  the  New  Territory 

Reduced  facsimile  of  an  advertisement  of  the 

Overland  Stage 


anti-slavery  party 
they  were  William  H. 
Seward  of  New  York, 
Salmon  P.  Chase  of 
Ohio,  and  Charles 
Sumner  of  Massachu- 
setts. On  the  pro- 
slavery  side  stood  Ste- 
phen A.  Douglas  of  Illinois,  Jefferson  Davis  of  Mississippi, 
and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  of  Georgia.  Seward  had  opposed 
the  Compromise  and  in  the  course  of  the  debate  had  ap- 
pealed to  a  "higher  law"  than  the  Constitution,  a  law  of 
liberty  and  justice.      Had  Taylor  lived,  perhaps  the  Com- 

^  Texas  was  satisfied  for  a  loss  of  territory  given  to  New  Mexico  by  a 
grant  of  $10,000,000. 


38o  THE  QUESTION  OF  SLAVERY 

promise  would  not  have  been  adopted,  for  Seward  had  great 
influence  over  him.^ 

The  Failure  of  the  Compromise.  —  The  quiet  which  fol- 
lowed the  Compromise  was  soon  ended.  The  extremists  on 
neither  side  were  satisfied.  The  southerners  believed  that 
they  had  lost  ground  by  the  admission  of  California  as  a 
free  state  and  by  the  prohibition  of  the  slave-trade  in  the 
District  of  Columbia.  The  advantages  that  the  Compromise 
offered  in  return  proved  to  be  worthless.  Slavery  could 
never  pay  in  Utah  and  New  Mexico.  Physical  geography 
had,  as  Webster  said,  forever  settled  the  question.  Negro 
slaves  had  neither  the  skill  nor  the  industry  needed  to  make 
the  deserts  bear  fruit.  Nor  was  the  new  fugitive  slave  law 
of  any  great  value. 

The  Underground  Railroad.  —  The  Compromise  had  also 
made  the  northern  abolitionists  angrier  than  ever.  They 
denounced  particularly  the  law  for  the  recovery  of  fugitive 
slaves.  When  some  one  said  that  the  northern  people  ought 
not  to  work  against  slavery  because  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  protected  it,  James  Russell  Lowell,  the  poet,  exclaimed, 
''To  be  told  that  we  ought  not  to  agitate  the  question  of 
slavery,  when  it  is  that  which  is  forever  agitating  us,  is  like 
telling  a  man  with  the  fever  and  ague  on  him  to  stop  shaking, 
and  he  will  be  cured." 

Such  people  secretly  aided  negroes  to  escape  in  spite  of  the 
law  and  the  danger  of  punishment.  They  hid  them  in  their 
houses  in  the  day  time  and  at  night  helped  them  on  their 
way  north  to  another  hiding  place.  Such  places  were  called 
"stations "  of  the  ''underground  railroad."  In  this  way  thou- 
sands of  slaves  escaped.  A  master  who  followed  the  fugi- 
tives too  far  into  the  North  was  in  danger  of  injury  from 
angry  mobs.     Some  men  made  it  a  business  to  hunt  slaves 

^  President  Taylor  died  in  1850  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Vice-President, 
Millard  Fillmore. 


FRICTION  CONCERNING  SLAVERY  381 

for  others,  and  stories  were  told  of  how  they  tried  to  use 
the  new  law  to  carry  back  into  slavery  negroes  who  were 
rightfully  free. 

"Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."  —  In  1852  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher 
Stowe  wrote  a  story  of  the  life  of  a  slave.  Some  things 
that  she  said  were  true;  many  were  not  true.  She  failed 
to  show  that  there  were  different  kinds  of  negro  slaves,  and 
how  most  of  those  in  the  cotton  states  were  only  half-civilized 
and  quite  unlike  the  fairly  well-trained  house-servants  of 
the  border  states.  Her  story  was  interesting  and  described 
some  abuses  that  doubtless  did  occur  under  bad  masters. 
Multitudes  of  men,  women,  and  children  in  the  North  read 
the  book  and  beHeved  that  all  slavery  was  like  that  which 
she  described,  and  that  all  southern  white  people  were  like 
her  cruel  masters,  slave-drivers,  and  slave-traders.  Such 
stories  aroused  against  slavery  multitudes  whom  Garrison 
had  failed  to  reach. 

Stories  were  told  at  the  South  of  how  the  aboHtionists  dis- 
tributed pamphlets  or  sent  agents  into  the  southern  states 
to  induce  the  slaves  to  run  away.  The  conviction  that  they 
had  been  cheated  in  every  compromise  steadily  gained  ground 
among  the  southerners.  Men  said  that  it  had  been  so 
in  1820  and  it  was  so  again  now.  Every  attempt  to  treat 
with  the  North,  they  asserted,  would  have  a  similar  result. 
Instead  of  the  peace  which  Clay,  Webster,  and  Calhoun  had 
hoped  for,  deeper  hatred  spread  over  the  land. 

Kansas  and  Nebraska  Bill.  —  The  situation  was  made 
worse  by  the  rule  which  Congress  adopted  in  opening  for  settle- 
ment the  Indian  country  west  of  Missouri  and  Iowa.  The 
southern  leaders  were  anxious  to  add  new  slave  territory.^ 
Some  of  them  hoped  to  obtain  Cuba  from  Spain  by  purchase, 

^  Iowa  had  been  admitted  without  slaves  in  1846.  The  admission  of  Arkan- 
sas in  1836  and  Michigan  in  1837,  and  of  Florida,  Texas,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin 
in  close  succession  during  1845,  1846,  and  1848,  had  kept  the  number  of  states 


382 


THE  QUESTION  OF  SLAVERY 


or  even  to  take  it  by  force.  Douglas  desired  to  satisfy  them 
in  order  that  he  might  gain  their  support  as  Democratic  can- 
didate in  the  next  presidential  election.  Accordingly,  when 
Congress  divided  the  upper  part  of  the  old  Louisiana  Purchase 
into  Kansas  and  Nebraska  territories,  Douglas  proposed  that 

the        inhabitants 

should  decide  at 
some  future  tiriie 
whether  they 
would  permit  slav- 
ery or  not.  This 
was  the  rule  which 
had  been  applied 
to  Utah  and  New 
Mexico. 

The  bill  meant 
that  the  new  terri- 
tories were  opened 
to  slavery  if  its 
supporters  could 
occupy  them.  This 
broke  the  agreement  made  by  the  Missouri  Compromise 
that  slavery  should  not  be  permitted  in  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  north  of  the  southern  boundary  of  Missouri.  It 
was  the  turn  of  the  anti-slavery  men  to  feel  that  they  were 
wronged.  Furthermore,  the  law  soon  led  to  a  struggle  for 
Kansas,  the  forerunner  of  a  greater  war. 

War  in  Kansas,  1854-57.  —  Free-soilers  and  slave-holders 
were  stirred  to  action  by  the  offer  of  Kansas  to  the  swiftest 
and  strongest  party.  Settlers  poured  in  from  North  and 
South.  They  were  colonists  sent  with  the  strange  mission 
of  battling  with  their  neighbors  for  possession  of  a  fair  ter- 


,lSCALE   OF   MILES 
0       100    200     300    -loa 


Territories  from  which  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  were  Erected 


with  slaves  and  without  them  equal, 
states  ahead. 


The  admission  of  California  put  the  free 


WAR  IN  KANSAS 


383 


ritory.^  Covered  wagons  which  had  started  for  California 
gold-fields  with  '^CaHfornia  or  bust"  painted  on  the  sides 
put  on  ''Kansas"  instead.  Adventurers  and  frontiersmen, 
eager  for  excitement,  joined  in  the  fray.  Many  Missourians 
crossed  the  boundary,  some  to  settle  with  their  slaves,  others 
merely  to  help  their  party  win  the  victory.     These  men  the 


Scene  on  the  Kansas  Border 
Note  the  ferry-boat  propelled  by  poles,  the  stern-wheeled  steamboat,  and  the  wagons 

anti-slavery  people  called  "border  ruffians."  The  most  deter- 
mined leader  of  the  anti-slavery  settlers  was  John  Brown, 
who  with  four  sons,  all  well  armed,  fought  against  the  colo- 
nists from  the  southern  states.  It  was  a  war  of  ambushes  and 
assaults  on  settlements.  The  Missourians  succeeded  in  found- 
ing Atchison  and  Leavenworth,  near  the  Missouri  River, 
while  the  Free-soilers  took  up  the  lands  farther  back,  around 
Lawrence  and  Topeka. 

The  Free-soilers  soon  outnumbered  their  opponents.  The 
North  had  the  advantage  not  only  in  the  number  ready  to 
emigrate  to  Kansas,  but  also  in  money  to  aid  them,  and  in 

^  The  new  territories  included  the  great  region  which  now  makes  up  the 
states  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  the  Dakotas,  Montana,  part  of  Colorado,  and 
Wyoming. 


384  THE  QUESTION  OF  SLAVERY 

railroads  to  carry  them  to  the  battleground.  The  conse- 
quence was  that  the  Free-soilers  eventually  succeeded  in  organ- 
izing a  government  without  slavery.  Besides,  the  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  Act  had  further  widened  the  breach  between 
the  North  and  the  South. 

Rise  of  a  New  Political  Party,  1854- 1860.  —  The  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  Act  led  also  to  the  formation  of  a  new  polit- 
ical party.  The  organization,  under  the  name  "RepubHcan,'* 
started  in  the  northwestern  states  during  the  summer  of  1854, 
and  spread  rapidly  over  the  entire  North.  The  people  of 
the  Northwest  had  long  regarded  the  lands  on  the  Kansas, 
the  Platte,  and  the  Missouri  rivers  as  destined  for  free 
farmers  like  themselves.  They  resented  a  measure  which 
upset  their  plans.  Besides,  Douglas  was  interfering  with 
another  plan.  The  workingmen  of  the  East  had  recently 
made  a  new  demand.  This  was  that  the  government  should 
give  every  man  in  the  United  States  who  had  no  land  and 
desired  some  a  free  homestead  of  160  acres  of  western  land. 
They  expected  that  their  plan  would  draw  many  laborers 
from  the  crowded  cities  and  make  wages  higher  for  those 
left  behind.  Those  who  took  up  free  lands  would  buy 
goods,  tools,  and  machinery,  and  make  times  better  in 
factories  and  mills  and  mines.  This  part  of  the  plan 
pleased  the  merchants  and  manufacturers  of  the  East  and 
won  their  support. 

End  of  the  Whig  Party.  —  The  new  party  grew  faster 
because  the  voters  in  the  old  parties,  especially  the  Whigs, 
had  come  to  believe  that  their  leaders  were  more  interested 
in  securing  offices  for  themselves  than  in  settling  the  serious 
problems  of  the  nation.  The  Whig  leaders  kept  saying  that 
the  question  of  slavery  had  been  settled  by  the  Compromise 
of  1850.  Multitudes  of  the  members  of  the  party  thought 
differently  and  joined  the  Republicans.  The  Whig  party 
melted  away,  much  as  the  old  Federalist  party  had  disap- 


END   OF  THE  WHIG  PARTY  385 

peared.  The  Democratic  party  lost  many,  especially  of  the 
workingmen,  for  the  same  reason. 

The  Dred  Scott  Affair.  —  In  1857  an  event  took  place  which 
stirred  the  RepubHcans  fully  as  much  as  the  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  Act.  A  negro,  Dred  Scott,  his  wife,  and  two 
daughters,  claimed  their  freedom  because  their  master  had 
once  taken  them  North  into  territory  where  slavery  was  un- 
lawful. The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  promptly 
decided  that  according  to  the  law  they  were  still  slaves;  that 
settled  the  matter  as  far  as  these  negroes  were  concerned. 
The  Chief -Justice,  Roger  B.  Taney,  and  several  justices, 
went  further,  thinking  that  the  question  of  slavery  could  be 
settled  if  the  Supreme  Court  expressed  an  opinion  upon  it. 
Accordingly,  the  majority  of  the  court  announced  that  the 
Missouri  Compromise  had  been  void  from  the  first,  because 
Congress  had  no  power  to  forbid  slavery  in  any  territory. 
They  also  declared  that  not  even  the  inhabitants  of  a  terri- 
tory could  do  this,  since  slaves  were  property  and  the  Con- 
stitution permitted  a  man  to  carry  his  property  into  the 
territories.  The  decision  meant  that  even  if  the  Repub- 
licans could  repeal  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  Act,  they  were 
powerless  to  prevent  the  spread  of  slavery  into  Kansas  and 
Nebraska.  They  thought  Taney's  decision  was  bad  law. 
Instead  of  settHng  the  question  of  slavery  once  for  all, 
Taney,  like  Douglas,  had  made  the  matter  worse. 

Abraham  Lincoln. — Abraham  Lincoln  had  been  practising 
law  in  IlHnois,  riding  the  circuit  of  the  scattered  frontier 
courts  as  was  the  custom  of  the  day,  and  voting  the  Whig 
ticket.  He  had  been  a  member  of  Congress  from  1847  to 
1849.  He  had  been  losing  interest  in  politics,  but  the  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  Act  and  the  Dred  Scott  opinion  aroused  him. 

In  1858  an  Illinois  RepubHcan  convention  nominated  him 
for  the  Senate  against  Douglas,  who  was  still  the  great  Demo- 
cratic leader.     In  his  speech  accepting  the  nomination  Lin- 


386 


THE  QUESTION  OF  SLAVERY 


coin  declared  courageously,  ''A  house  divided  against  itself 
cannot  stand.  I  believe  this  government  cannot  endure  per- 
manently half  slave  and  half  free.  I  do  not  expect  the  Union 
to  be  dissolved;  I  do  not  expect  the  house  to  fall;  but  I 
do  expect  it  will  cease  to  be  divided.  It  will  become  all  one 
thing  or  all  the  other."  He  plainly  showed  that  he  wished 
to  stop  the  progress  of  slavery  in  the  territories,  and  even 

hinted  that  he  expected  that 
the  opponents  of  slavery 
would  finally  destroy  it. 

Lincoln  challenged  Douglas 
to  debate  the  question  before 
the  citizens  of  Illinois.  The 
two  men  presented  a  striking 
contrast.  Douglas  was  con- 
sidered a  great  orator  and  a 
shrewd  debater.  As  he  was 
short  he  was  commonly  called 
the  '' Little  Giant."  Lincoln 
was  tall  and  awkward,  but  he 
already  had  the  reputation  of  uttering  sayings  as  wise  as 
those  of  ''Poor  Richard."  His  way  of  reasoning  was  per- 
fectly clear  and  straightforward.  Before  the  debates  were 
ended  he  had  compelled  Douglas  to  explain  that  though  Con- 
gress, according  to  the  Dred  Scott  decision,  might  not  forbid 
slavery  in  the  territories,  the  people  of  the  territories  could 
make  slave-holding  impossible  by  passing  laws  hostile  to  it. 
This  statement  made  the  southerners  angry  at  Douglas. 
Lincoln  lost  the  election,  but  he  had  won  a  hearing  before 
the  whole  country  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Republican  party. 

The  young  party  grew  rapidly.  In  1856  a  majority  of  the 
northern  states  voted  for  the  Republican  candidate  for  Presi- 
dent, but  the  Democrats  in  the  North  and  the  South  elected 


James  Buchanan 


JOHN  BROWN'S  RAID 


387 


their  candidate,  James  Buchanan  of  Pennsylvania.  After  the 
Dred  Scott  affair,  the  RepubHcans  won  other  northern  states, 
until  by  1859  they  had  more  members  than  the  Democrats 
in  the  House  of  Representatives. 

John  Brown* s  Raid,  1859.  —  The  southern  people  were 
alarmed  by  the  growth  of  a  northern  political  party.  They 
knew  that  the  Republican  leaders  said  that  their  chief  object 
was  to  abolish  slavery  in  the  territories,  but  no  southerner 
beheved  that  the  RepubHcans  would  be  satisfied  to  stop 
there.  The  abolitionists  among  them  were  resolved  to  destroy 
the  system  everywhere.  Who  could  tell  when  they  would 
control  the  whole  party? 

An  event  in  the  fall  of  1859  seemed  to  give  good  ground 
for  more  serious  alarm. 
One  quiet  night  in  Octo- 
ber, John  Brown,  with  18 
followers  fully  armed, 
seized  the  little  Virginia 
village  of  Harper's  Ferry 
with  its  United  States  gun 
factory  and  store  of  arms. 
It  was  the  first  act  in  a 
strange  plan.  Brown  in- 
tended to  arouse  the 
slaves  in  Virginia,  put 
arms  in  their  hands,  and  by  their  aid  provide  a  mountain 
stronghold  for  all  slaves.  There  would  be  a  great  war 
against  slavery  carried  into  the  heart  of  the  South,  and 
waged  mainly  by  the  negroes  themselves.  The  aboHtionists 
were  too  mild  for  him.  ''Those  men,"  he  said,  ''are  all  talk; 
what  is  needed  is  action  —  action!"  He  seems  to  have 
thought  that  northern  people  would  aid  him  with  money  and 
arms  in  a  race  war  in  the  southern  mountains,  as  they  had 
in  Kansas. 


Harper's  Ferry  in  1859 


388  THE  QUESTION  OF  SLAVERY 

Nothing  turned  out  as  he  hoped.  The  slaves  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Harper's  Ferry  did  not  rise.  His  men  raided 
several  plantations  and  freed  the  slaves,  but  these  were  too 
frightened  to  fight  and  worse  than  useless  as  followers. 
Within  a  few  hours  an  overwhelming  force  of  the  neigh- 
boring militia  and  United  States  marines  surrounded  and 
captured  Brown's  little  band.  Brown  and  several  of  his 
men  were  tried  and  hanged  for  murder  and  treason.  Such 
was  the  tragic  ending  of  a  plan  over  which  Brown  had 
brooded  for  twenty  years,  until  he  believed  that  God  had 
called  him  to  free  the  slaves. 

The  people  of  the  South  were  horror-stricken  at  Brown's 
raid.  He  had  attempted  to  bring  about  what  they  had  always 
most  dreaded  —  an  armed  uprising  of  the  slaves.  They  could 
not  tell  how  many  northern  people  supported  the  plan.  They 
heard  that  some  abolitionists  rejoiced  in  Brown's  deed  and 
proclaimed  him  a  martyr.  Those  at  the  South  who  dis- 
liked the  slave  system,  and  there  were  many  such,  as  well  as 
those  who  approved  it,  denounced  the  North.  It  was  impos- 
sible to  convince  them  thatBrown's  deed  was  his  own,  and  that 
the  great  majority  of  the  northern  people  thought  it  wrong. 
Each  one  who  had  tried  to  settle  the  slavery  question.  Clay, 
Douglas,  Taney,  and  Brown,  only  made  the  matter  worse. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  What  important  political  question  divided  the  people  of  the  United  States 
in  1848?  What  step  did  California  take?  What  did  southern  leaders  want  to  do 
before  admitting  California  into  the  Union?  What  had  Congress  done  in  the 
case  of  Oregon? 

2.  What  other  questions  divided  the  states  with  slaves  and  those  without? 
What  change  in  the  fugitive  slave  law  did  the  slave-holders  want? 

3.  What  did  the  abolitionists  seek  to  do?  Why  did  the  majority  of  north- 
em  people  oppose  the  plan  of  the  abolitionists?  What  were  many  northern 
people  anxious  to  do  regarding  slavery?  What  name  was  given  to  this  party? 
What  position  did  the  two  great  political  parties  take  on  the  subject  in  the 
election  of  1848? 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES  389 

4.  What  leaders  supported  Clay's  Compromise?  How  did  Clay  try  to 
satisfy  both  sides?  What  method  did  he  use  to  end  the  dispute  about  slavery 
in  the  new  territory? 

5.  What  new  leaders  took  the  places  of  the  older  men?  Why  were  the 
Southerners  soon  dissatisfied  with  the  Compromise?  How  did  the  northern 
abolitionists  help  fugitive  slaves?  What  effect  did  their  methods  have  on  the 
South? 

6.  Describe  Mrs.  Stowe's  novel,  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  What  influence  did 
it  have?  What  did  the  South  believe  about  the  abolitionists?  What  did  it 
think  about  compromises  with  the  North? 

7.  What  rule  did  Douglas  propose  for  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  territories? 
Why  did  he  make  this  proposal?  Where  else  had  it  been  adopted?  What 
effect  did  it  have  on  the  Missouri  Compromise?    Whom  did  it  displease? 

8.  Why  did  Douglas's  Kansas  and  Nebraska  Act  bring  on  a  war  in  Kansas? 
Who  were  the  fighters?  Why  did  the  Free-soilers  win?  What  effect  had  the 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  Act  on  the  difference  between  the  North  and  the  South? 

9.  What  new  political  party  was  formed  in  the  North?  Why  did  the 
people  of  the  northwestern  states  favor  it?  The  workingmen  of  the  East? 
The  merchants  and  manufacturers?     Why  did  the  Whig  party  lose  its  followers? 

10.  What  did  the  Supreme  Court  say  in  the  Dred  Scott  decision  regarding 
the  power  of  Congress?    Why  did  the  Republicans  think  it  bad  law? 

11.  Whom  did  the  Dred  Scott  decision  arouse?  What  did  he  say  regarding 
slavery  in  his  debates  with  the  "Little  Giant"?  What  did  Douglas  say  which 
made  the  southern  Democrats  angry  with  him? 

12.  How  did  John  Brown  try  to  end  slavery?  What  did  the  southern  people 
think  of  the  raid?     Whom  did  they  blame? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Review  Clay's  three  great  compromises  proposed  to  save  the  Union. 
See  pages  316,  332,  378. 

2.  Review  the  story  of  the  Federahst  party. 

3.  Prepare  a  summary  of  this  chapter  under  the  headings  which  follow: 

(a)  1850.   Clay's  attempt  to  settle  the  slave  question. 

(6)  1854.  The  attempt  of  Douglas  to  end  the  difference  over  slavery 
in  the  territories. 

(c)  1857.  The  attempt  of  Roger  B.  Taney  and  the  majority  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  to  settle  the  difference  over  slavery  in  the 
territories. 

id)  1859.  The  attempt  of  John  Brown  to  destroy  the  entire  slave 
system. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV 

A   DIVIDED    NATION 

Election  of  Lincoln.  —  The  election  of  i860  was  intensely 
exciting.  Southern  leaders,  like  Senator  Jefferson  Davis, 
thought  that  the  choice  of  a  RepubHcan  President  would 
bring  ruin  upon  the  South.  They  were  prepared  to  break 
up  the  Union  unless  the  government  would  support  the  Dred 
Scott  decision,  that  is,  protect  slave  property  in  the  terri- 
tories, whether  the  inhabitants  of  them  wished  it  or  not. 
When  the  Democratic  convention  met  in  April,  they  at- 
tempted to  force  the  delegates  to  embody  such  a  demand 
in  the  party  platform  or  programme.  A  majority  of  the 
delegates  were  Douglas  men  and  refused.  Thereupon  the 
delegates  of  the  cotton  states  withdrew.  The  others,  meet- 
ing later  in  the  year,  nominated  Stephen  A.  Douglas  as 
President,  while  the  ''bolters"  nominated  John  C.  Brecken- 
ridge  of  Kentucky,  who  at  the  time  was  Vice-President. 

The  spHt  in  the  Democratic  party  led  to  the  success  of  the 
RepubHcan  party,  the  very  thing  that  the  Southern  leaders 
declared  would  be  ruinous.  The  Republican  convention 
met  in  Chicago  in  May.  Seward  seemed  at  first  to  be  the 
favorite  candidate,  but  on  the  third  ballot  Abraham  Lincoln 
was  nominated  as  President.  Earlier  in  the  year  Lincoln 
had  strengthened  his  reputation  by  a  speech  in  New  York,  in 
the  course  of  which  he  denied  that  the  party  was  in  any 
way  responsible  for  the  John  Brown  raid.  He  showed  that 
while  the  Republicans  were  pledged  to  resist  the  spread  of 
slavery  into  the  territories,  they  did  not  intend  to  interfere 


THE   SOUTH  SECEDES 


391 


with  it  in  the  southern  states.  Lincoln  was  commonly  con- 
sidered as  more  cautious  than  Seward,  and  he  was  counted 
upon  to  carry  Illinois  and  one  or  two  other  doubtful  states. 

In  the  election  Lincoln  carried  all  the  northern  states  except 
New  Jersey,  whose  electoral  vote  was  divided  between  Lin- 
coln and  Douglas.  Lincoln's  electoral  vote  was  180,  while 
his  opponents  received  123.  Douglas  and  Breckenridge  to- 
gether received  a  much  larger  popular  vote.  It  was  clear, 
therefore,  that  the  Democrats  would  have  won  if  the  dele- 
gates of  the  cotton  states  had  not  insisted  upon  their 
programme. 

South  Carolina's  Declaration  of  Independence.  —  Imme- 
diately after  the  election  South  CaroHna  decided  to  withdraw 
from  the  Union.  The  legislature 
called  a  convention  which,  on 
December  20,  repealed  the  rati- 
fication of  the  Constitution  pass- 
ed in  1788,  and  declared  the 
state  a  ''free  and  independent 
nation."  As  the  leaders  of  the 
cotton  states  had  agreed  to  stand 
together,  Mississippi,  Florida, 
Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana, 
and  Texas  soon  followed  the 
example  of  South  Carolina. 

A  New  Republic,  1861.  —  In 
February,  1861,  a  convention  of 
delegates  held  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  took  the  necessary 
steps  to  form  a  new  repubhc,  calHng  it  the  Confederate 
States  of  America.  Jefferson  Davis  of  Mississippi  was 
chosen  President,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  of  Georgia 
Vice-President.  The  constitution  of  the  Confederate  States 
repeated  the  old  constitution  almost  word  for  word.  The 
Southern  leaders  were  convinced  that  the  old  constitution, 


Jefferson  Davis 


392  A  DIVIDED  NATION 

if  properly  enforced,  would  make  their  property  in  slaves  as 
safe  as  any  other  kind  of  property.  In  the  new  constitution 
however,  they  took  pains  to  make  this  so  clear  that  there 
could  be  no  dispute. 

The  Southern  People  and  the  old  Union.  —  Most  of  the 
southern  people  wished  to  remain  in  the  Union  under  which 
they  and  their  fellow- Americans  had  grown  to  be  a  great 
nation.  The  stories  of  heroic  deeds,  of  Bunker  Hill  and 
Yorktown,  of  leaders  like  Washington  and  Jackson,  of  the 
pioneers  who  had  carried  the  flag  from  territory  to  territory, 
were  posssessions  of  both  North  and  South.  For  thirty 
years  John  C.  Calhoun  and  Jefferson  Davis  had  worked 
as  earnestly  as  Henry  Clay  and  Daniel  Webster  to  find  a 
way  to  preserve  the  Union.  But  such  men  as  Davis  now 
beHeved  separation  better. 

The  Doubtful  States.  —  At  first  only  the  cotton  states 
withdrew  from  the  United  States.  In  the  border  states  — 
Delaware,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri  —  slavery  had 
so  far  declined  that  the  majority  of  the  people  had  little 
interest  in  defending  it.  Besides,  the  business  men  were 
more  closely  connected  with  the  North  than  with  the  South. 
Their  real  attachment  was  to  the  United  States  rather  than 
to  the  new  Confederate  States. 

Between  them  and  the  cotton  states  lay  Virginia,  North 
Carohna,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas.  In  them  also  slavery 
was  slowly  disappearing.  Their  closest  bonds  were,  never- 
theless, with  their  southern  neighbors.  Virginia  was  proud 
of  the  state's  share  in  the  nation's  history.  For  a  while 
these  states  waited  and  watched  the  course  of  events. 

What  would  Buchanan  do?  —  Buchanan's  term  as  Pres- 
ident did  not  close  until  three  months  after  South  Carolina 
had  seceded,  and  one  month  after  the  convention  at  Mont- 
gomery had  begun  the  organization  of  the  Confederate 
States.     The  leaders  of  the  new  republic  were  anxious  about 


ATTEMPTS   TO   COMPROMISE  393 

his  attitude  toward  them.  They  remembered  that  when 
South  CaroHna  prepared  to  resist  a  national  law  President 
Jackson  took  such  vigorous  steps  to  compel  obedience  that 
opposition  was  dangerous.  Would  Buchanan  take  similar 
measures  ? 

They  had  not  long  to  wait.  In  a  message  to  Congress 
Buchanan  said  that  a  state  had  no  right  to  withdraw  from 
the  Union,  but  neither  the  President  nor  Congress  had  any 
power  to  compel  the  cotton  states  to  return  to  the  Union 
against  their  will.  Such  words  encouraged  the  leaders  of 
the  Confederate  States.  Southern  senators,  representatives, 
judges,  and  post-masters  gave  up  their  places  under  the 
United  States  government  and  took  service  under  the  new 
republic. 

President  Davis  and  his  associates  had  no  doubts  about 
the  justice  of  their  cause.  Few  of  them  had  any  idea  that 
separation  would  bring  on  war.  South  Carolina  sent  a  com- 
mission to  Washington  to  arrange  with  the  United  States  a 
division  of  the  national  debt  and  a  settlement  regarding  the 
national  property  within  the  state. 

Attempts  to  compromise  again.  —  A  compromise  had 
saved  the  Union  so  many  times  that  men  thought  the  old 
method  would  serve  again,  but  no  plan  was  found  upon 
which  they  could  agree.  Lincoln  was  consulted  by  the 
Repubhcans  in  Congress.  He  offered  to  support  an  amend- 
ment to  the  Constitution  making  it  clear  that  Congress  had 
no  power  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  any  southern  state. 
The  southern  Congressmen  insisted  that  the  provision  be 
added  that  Congress  had  no  power  to  exclude  slavery  from  the 
territories  of  the  United  States.  To  this  point  Lincoln  would 
not  agree.  Since  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  Act,  slavery  in 
the  territories  was  the  one  thing  that  the  Republicans  had 
determined  should  cease. 

Would  it  be  War  or  Peace  ?  —  The  question  in  every  man's 


394 


A   DIVIDED   NATION 


mind  throughout  the  winter  of  1861  was  whether  the  with- 
drawal of  seven  cotton  states  meant  war  or  peaceable  dis- 
union. Some  dreaded  civil  war  more  than  dividing  the 
country.  Horace  Greeley,  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune, 
one  of  the  Republican  leaders  in  the  North,  urged  peaceable 
separation.     ''If  the  cotton  states/'  he  wrote,  "shall  become 

satisfied  that  they  can  do 
better  out  of  the  Union  than 
in  it,  we  insist  on  letting  them 
go  in  peace."  No  one  knows 
how  many  agreed  with  him. 
Among  those  who  shared  this 
opinion  were  the  Friends  or 
Quakers.  Such  men  loved 
the  Union,  but  did  not  wish  to 
shed  blood  to  keep  the  South 
in  it.  They  trusted  that  if 
treated  generously  the  South 
would  return  of  its  own  free 
will.  The  Garrison  aboli- 
tionists rejoiced  over  the  withdrawal  of  the  cotton  states  as 
the  easiest  way  to  purge  the  Union  of  slavery.  It  was  com- 
monly said  that  Senator  Seward  was  working  for  a  com- 
promise by  which  the  plan  of  keeping  the  territories  wholly 
for  free  settlers  should  be  given  up.  The  majority  of  the 
Republicans  looked  upon  the  secession  of  the  cotton  states 
as  treason,  and  the  men  who  led  it  traitors.  A  compromise 
on  the  question  of  the  territories  was  no  longer  to  be 
considered. 

The  northern  people  had  gradually  gained  a  strong  national 
feeling,  while  the  southerners  were  first  of  all  loyal  to  their 
states.  The  immigrant  had  come  to  seek  a  home  and  an 
opportunity  not  in  any  particular  state  but  in  the  United 
States.     To  him  the  separate  states  seemed  simple  subdivi- 


HoRACE  Greeley 


FORT  SUMTER 


395 


sions  of  the  country.  The  multipHcation  of  railroads,  the 
close  relations  of  trade,  the  settlement  of  the  West  by  the 
children  of  eastern  families,  all  combined  to  make  Webster's 
cry,  '^ Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  insep- 
arable," the  watchword  of  the  North.  Lincoln  expressed 
the  same  feeling  by  his  declaration  in  his  inaugural  address 
that  ''the  union  of  these  states  is  perpetual."  Would  the 
northern  people  support  such  a  view  by  war? 


Map  of  Forts  in  Charleston  Harbor 


What  shall  be  done  with  Fort  Sumter?  —  The  Confederate 
States  had  as  yet  met  with  no  obstacles  as  an  indepen- 
dent repubUc.  Buchanan  had  finished  his  term  and  Lincoln 
had  become  President.  The  Confederate  States  had  taken 
possession  of  national  custom-houses,  forts,  and  military 
supphes,  worth  together  about  $30,000,000,  located  within 
their  limits.  Fort  Sumter,  on  an  island  in  Charleston  harbor, 
held  out  almost  alone  among  the  old  forts.  Its  commander, 
Major  Robert  Anderson  of  Kentucky,  had  an  officer's 
scruples  against  abandoning  a  post  of  duty.  But  he  needed 
provisions  and  reinforcements.  In  January  Buchanan  had 
sent  an  unarmed  steamboat,  the  Star  of  the  West,  with 
supphes,  but  it  was  fired  upon  in  Charleston  harbor  and 
compelled  to  return  to  New  York. 


396  A  DIVIDED  NATION 

What  to  do  about  Fort  Sumter  was  Lincoln's  first  hard  prob- 
lem as  President.  He  assured  the  North  and  the  South  that 
the  government  would  not  use  force  unless  force  was  used 
against  it.  Jefferson  Davis  said  to  his  supporters  that  Sum- 
ter would  be  abandoned  without  war.  Five  weeks  passed 
after  Lincoln's  inauguration,  and  still  there  was  peace. 
Neither  side  was  willing  to  bear  the  blame  for  starting 
a  great  civil  war.  On  April  8  President  Lincoln  notified 
the  governor  of  South  Carolina  that  he  intended  to  supply 
the  fort  with  provisions.  At  the  same  time  he  explained  that 
he  would  not  reinforce  the  garrison  or  add  to  the  stock  of 
ammunition  unless  the  state  troops  resisted. 


Fort  Sumter  after  the  Bombardment 

Fall  of  Fort  Sumter.  —  On  Saturday  morning,  April  13, 
1 86 1,  the  northern  newspapers  announced  that  Charleston 
troops  were  bombarding  Fort  Sumter.  The  Confederate 
government  at  Montgomery  had  finally  concluded  to  attack 
the  fort  before  it  could  be  reheved.  The  bombardment  began 
early  on  Friday,  April  12,  and  lasted  two  days.  The  people  of 
Charleston  gathered  in  crowds  along  the  wharves  and  on  top 
of  buildings  to  watch  the  batteries,  which  had  been  placed 
on  every  side  of  the  harbor,  fire  at  the  fort.  Anderson  and 
his  men  held  out  until  the  fort  was  in  ruins  and  its  wooden 
buildings  were  on  fire.     Then  they  surrendered.     They  were 


THE  CALL  TO  ARMS  397 

allowed  to  salute  their  flag  and  to  depart  for  the  North  aboard 
Federal  ships  which  were  waiting  off  the  harbor. 

The  Call  to  Arms. — The  attack  on  Fort  Sumter  was 
the  signal  which  all  had  dreaded/  The  authority  of  the 
United  States  had  been  openly  defied.  The  flag  had  been 
fired  upon.  Leading  northern  Democrats  as  well  as  Re- 
publicans agreed  that  the  government  must  be  upheld. 
Buchanan  and  Douglas  let  it  be  known  that  they  would 
aid  in  enforcing  the  laws  and  recovering  the  property  of  the 
United  States.^ 

Monday  morning,  April  15,  Lincoln  asked  the  governors 
of  the  states  to  supply  the  United  States  with  75,000 
soldiers.  It  was  a  call  to  arms.  The  response,  except  from 
the  border  states,  went  beyond  the  hopes  of  the  North. 
The  first  volunteers  were  chiefly  men  in  militia  regiments 
already  organized.  The  Sixth  Massachusetts,  composed 
of  citizens  of  Concord,  Lexington,  and  the  surrounding  towns, 
left  for  Washington  within  48  hours. 

The  Southern  Answer.  —  The  response  in  the  Confederate 
States  to  the  call  of  Davis  for  troops  was  no  less  prompt  and 
generous.  A  southern  leader  said,  ''The  anxiety  among  our 
citizens  is  not  as  to  who  shall  go  to  the  wars,  but  who  shall 
stay  at  home." 

The  Border  States.  —  On  the  outbreak  of  war,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas  joined  the  Confed- 
erate States.  Eleven  states  in  all  joined  in  the  effort  to  form 
a  southern  nation.  Twenty-two  states  remained  loyal  to  the 
old  government.  Richmond  was  chosen  as  the  permanent 
capital  of  the  Confederacy.  The  loss  of  Virginia  was  an 
especially  serious  one  to  the  United  States.  Its  nearness  to 
Washington  placed  the  capital  in  great  danger.  Several 
distinguished  Virginia  soldiers,  among  them  Robert  E.  Lee, 

1  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  only  48  years  of  age,  died  a  few  weeks  later,  but  to 
the  last  used  his  influence  to  unite  the  North. 


398 


A  DIVIDED  NATION 


thought  their  duty  was  with  their  state  and  left  the  Union 
army  to  serve  the  South. 

One  or  two  of  the  border  states  seemed  ahnost  ready  to 
follow  the  example  of  Virginia  and  Tennessee.  The  governor 
of  Missouri  refused  to  send  any  troops,  but  the  timely  energy 
of  the  German  citizens  of  St.  Louis,  under  the  leadership  of 


The  White  House  of  the  Confederacy 
;  Residence  of  President  Jefferson  Davis  at  Richmond 

Captain  Lyon,  saved  the  state  for  the  Union.  Maryland 
also  was  doubtful  for  a  time,  and  the  Sixth  Massachusetts 
regiment  was  attacked  by  a  mob  as  it  was  marching  through 
Baltimore.  The  western  counties  of  Virginia  seceded  from 
Virginia  and  formed  a  new  state.  West  Virginia,  which  was 
later  admitted  into  the  Union.  The  people  of  east  Tennessee 
were  equally  opposed  to  secession,  but  did  not  carry  their 
opposition  so  far.  The  border  states  remained  in  the  Union 
partly  because  of  Lincoln's  tact  and  generosity  in  dealing 
with  them. 

QUESTIONS 

I.  Why  did  the  southern  Democrats  divide  their  party?  Whom  did  the 
two  parts  nominate  as  candidates  for  President?  Why  did  the  Repubhcans 
nominate  Lincoln?  Why  was  Lincoln  successful  in  the  election  of  i860?  What 
was  the  programme  or  demand  of  the  southern  leaders? 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES  399 

2.  What  did  South  Carolina  do  after  the  election  of  Lincoln?  What  states 
followed  its  example?  Whom  did  the  Confederate  States  choose  as  President 
and  Vice-President?    What  kind  of  a  constitution  did  they  adopt? 

3.  What  states  wavered  between  the  Union  and  the  new  republic?  Which 
way  did  each  incline? 

4.  What  did  Buchanan  think  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  cotton  states?  What 
was  the  effect  of  his  attitude? 

5.  What  concession  was  Lincoln  willing  to  make  to  prevent  war  between 
the  northern  and  southern  states?  What  did  the  leaders  of  the  cotton  states 
demand?  What  plan  did  some  leaders  like  Horace  Greeley  advocate?  Others 
like  Seward? 

6.  Why  were  the  northern  people  more  attached  to  the  Union  than  the 
southern? 

7.  What  was  the  first  obstacle  that  the  Confederate  States  met?  Why  did 
Lincoln  hesitate  to  send  supplies  and  reinforcements  to  Fort  Sumter?  Why 
did  the  Confederate  government  finally  attack  Fort  Sumter?  What  was  the 
result? 

8.  What  was  the  result  of  the  call  for  troops  in  the  northern  states?  In 
the  southern  states?     In  the  border  states? 

9.  Why  did  distinguished  Virginians  like  Robert  E.  Lee  leave  the  army 
of  the  United  States  to  aid  the  Confederate  cause?  What  states  joined  in  the 
attempt  to  form  a  new  republic  in  the  South?  Which  ones  were  divided  in 
sentiment  and  action? 

EXERCISES 

1.  How  long  was  it  after  South  Carolina  seceded  before  war  began  by  the 
attack  on  Fort  Sumter? 

2,  Wherever  possible  gather  stories  of  the  topics  mentioned  in  this  chap- 
ter from  persons  who  were  living  when  the  events  happened. 

Important  Dates : 

April  14,  1861.     Fort  Sumter  captured  by  the  troops  of  the  Confederate 
States,  beginning  the  Civil  War. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

THE   BEGINNING   OF   CIVIL   WAR 

Resources  of  the  North  and  the  South.  —  The  Southern 
leaders  supposed  that  ''cotton  was  king,"  but  war  proved 
that  the  kingdom  of  corn,  wheat,  coal,  and  iron  was  stronger. 
The  planters  were  so  occupied  in  raising  cotton,  and  to  some 
extent  rice  and  sugar,  that  they  did  not  build  factories, 
open  coal  mines,  and  dig  iron  ore.  Their  system  of  railroads 
was  incomplete  and  poorly  equipped.  English  or  northern 
ships  carried  their  cotton  to  the  market.  Most  of  the 
steamboat  Hues  which  ran  on  western  rivers  belonged  to 
northern  companies.  The  food  of  the  whole  country  was 
raised  mainly  on  northern  and  western  fields. 

In  war  such  things  count.  Armies  must  be  fed,  supplies 
must  be  carried  rapidly,  the  wear  and  tear  of  campaigning 
must  be  met  by  new  equipment.  A  people  whose  chief 
occupation  is  a  particular  kind  of  agriculture  is  at  a  great 
disadvantage  in  strugghng  with  a  people  provided  with  a 
well-developed  system  of  manufactures  and  a  boundless  food 
supply.  The  South  was  obliged  to  look  to  Europe  for  the 
mihtary  supplies  that  it  could  not  produce  and  to  pay  for 
them  with  its  cotton.  It  could  not,  however,  send  cotton 
abroad  unless  its  ports  were  kept  open.  As  the  South  had 
neither  war-ships  nor  sufficient  ship  yards  to  build  them, 
its  trade  with  England  and  Europe  was  sure  to  be  cut  off 
sooner  or  later  by  a  blockade. 

The  South  was  also  at  a  disadvantage  in  numbers.  The 
white  population   of   the    states   in   the   Confederacy  was 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  WAR 


401 


5,400,000,  while  the  total  population  of  the  Union,  including 
the  border  states,  was  22,000,000.  The  disadvantage  of 
the  South  in  numbers,  as  compared  with  the  North,  was 
partially  overcome  by  the  employment  of  slaves  not  only  in 
raising  food  but  also  as  teamsters  and  laborers  in  the  army. 
Furthermore,  many  citizens  of  the  border  states  fought  in 
the  southern  armies. 


Railroads  and  Navigable  Waterways  of  the  South,  186  i 


Geography  of  the  War.  —  The  leaders  of  both  North  and 
South  sought  to  grasp  any  advantage  which  their  own  situa- 
tion or  that  of  their  enemies  offered.  As  the  navy  remained 
loyal  to  the  national  government,  the  North  possessed  the 
sea  power.  It  could  choose  points  of  attack  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  or  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Southern  sea- 
ports soon  felt  the  weight  of  war,  while  no  northern  port 
was  threatened. 

The  great  Appalachian  barrier  served  to  divide  the  war 
into  two  distinct  fields  of  operation,  that  of  Virginia  and 
that  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.     The  barrier  was  pierced  by 


402  THE   BEGINNING  OF  CIVIL  WAR 

northern  railroads  running  from  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Baltimore  westward,  and  by  southern  railroads  from 
Richmond  to  Knoxville  and  Chattanooga,  and  from  Charles- 
ton to  Memphis. 

Two  valleys  played  an  important  part  —  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  and  the  Great  Appalachian  Valley  of  eastern  Tennes- 
see. The  Shenandoah  has  been  compared  to  a  gun  trained 
on  Washington,  through  which  troops  might  be  discharged  if 
the   national   armies   moved   southward   toward  Richmond. 


Scene  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley 

The  Blue  Ridge  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Shenandoah,  with 
its  many  '^gaps,"  served  also  as  a  screen  behind  which  an 
army  might  move  north  or  south,  bursting  through  upon 
some  weak  point  of  the  Union  Hne.  The  valley  could  not 
be  used  equally  well  by  the  national  armies,  for  it  led  away 
from  Richmond  toward  the  southwest.  Through  the  Appa- 
lachian Valley,  in  like  manner,  a  southern  army  could  be 
thrown  into  Kentucky  if  the  national  armies  advanced  along 
the  hne  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Except  for  the  danger  from  the  Shenandoah,  the  geography 
of  Virginia  seemed  to  favor  the  North.  Chesapeake  Bay  and 
the  James  River  offered  an  easy  approach  to  Richmond.  A 
direct  march  overland  from  Washington  to  Richmond  was 
hampered  by  rivers  running  from  the  Piedmont  hills  to  the 
coast,  each  furnishing  a  natural  line  of  defense. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF   THE   WAR 


403 


West  of  the  Appalachians  the  advantage  of  position  lay  also 
with  the  North.  The  Mississippi  was  a  great  highway  lead- 
ing either  north  or  south,  but  the  North  could  build  armed 
steamboats  faster  than  the  South.  At  only  a  few  points  in 
its  course,  such  as  Colum- 
bus in  Kentucky,  and 
Vicksburg  in  Mississippi, 
does  the  river  touch 
high  plateaus  or  bluffs 
which  can  be  fortified.  It 
is  unlike  a  river  flowing 
between  hilly  shores 
which  offer  a  multitude 
of  places  for  defense. 
Two  other  rivers,  the 
Cumberland  and  the  Ten- 
nessee, which  empty  in- 
to the  Ohio  near  where 
it  joins  the  Mississippi, 
are  navigable,  the  first 
to  a  point  many  miles  above  Nashville,  the  other  as  far  as 
northern  Alabama.  In  Tennessee,  near  the  Kentucky  border, 
they  are  only  twelve  miles  apart. 

Railroads  were  almost  as  important  as  rivers.  It  is  true 
that  raiders  could  tear  up  tracks  and  burn  bridges,  but  trained 
workmen  could  soon  replace  both.  Railroad  junctions  were 
especially  important.  Manassas  Junction  was  such  a  place, 
where  the  railroad  from  Washington  to  Lynchburg  was  joined 
by  a  railroad  from  the  Shenandoah  Valley  through  Manassas 
Gap.  Bowling  Green,  in  Kentucky,  was  another,  situated 
near  the  junction  of  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  and  the 
Memphis  and  Ohio  railroads.  Still  another  was  Corinth, 
Mississippi,  where  the  Memphis  and  Charleston  Railroad, 
the  only  through  line  from  the  lower  Mississippi  to  the  coast. 


Scene  on  the  Gateway  to  the  North 
The  Shenandoah  River  near  Harper's  Ferry 


404 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  CIVIL  WAR 


crossed  a  railroad  from  Mobile.  Chattanooga,  in  southeast- 
ern Tennessee,  was  important  because  of  river,  mountain 
pass,  and  railroad,  for  there  the  Tennessee  River  breaks 
through  the  Cumberland  Plateau,  the  eastern  wall  of  the 
Appalachian  barrier.  There  also  important  railroads  met 
connecting  the  cities  on  the  Mississippi 
with  Charleston  and  Richmond. 

Soldiers  North  and  South.  —  Both 
North  and  South  had  trained  officers  to 
command  at  least  a  part  of  their  armies. 
These  men  were  graduates  of  West  Point, 
had  been  in  the  regular  army,  and  some 
of  them  had  fought  in  the  Mexican  War. 
The  regular  army  numbered  only  16,000 
men.  The  chief  reliance  was  upon  volun- 
teers. The  Southerners,  more  accustomed 
to  outdoor  life,  and  the  planters  to  leader- 
ship, were  readily  transformed  into  sol- 
diers. The  Northern  volunteers  came 
fresh  from  farms,  factories,  shops,  and 
desks.  Many  of  them  were  led  into 
battle  before  they  had  been  taught  how 
to  handle  a  gun.  The  Germans,  who  enlisted  in  the  Northern 
armies,  were  an  exception,  for  most  of  them  had  received 
mihtary  training  before  they  had  left  the  fatherland. 

As  the  South  stood  on  the  defensive,  simply  insisting  on 
its  right  to  secede  and  form  a  separate  nation,  the  Southern 
soldier  was  fighting  on  his  own  ground  and  in  a  climate  to 
which  he  was  accustomed.  The  North,  declaring  that  the 
Union  should  be  preserved,  had  the  task  of  occupying  the 
southern  states  and  compelling  their  return  to  the  Union. 
Its  soldiers  fought,  in  a  sense,  in  a  foreign  country.  Vast 
regions  of  the  South  were  still  a  wilderness,  with  few  roads 
and  bridges.     If  the  Northern  armies  succeeded  in  forcing 


Union  Soldier  in 
Uniform 


BLOCKADE    OF   THE    SOUTH 


405 


their  way  far  into  the  South,  they  had  to  guard  a  hundred 
places  along  their  line  of  advance,  or  be  cut  off  from  their 
sources  of  supply. 

Blockade  of  the  South.  —  On  April  19,  five  days  after  the 
fall  of  Fort  Sumter,  President  Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation 
declaring  the  ports  of  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida  in  a  state  of  blockade. 
A  week  later  the  other  Confederate  ports 
were  included.  At  first  it  was  a  "paper" 
blockade,  that  is,  the  navy  was  not  large 
enough  to  station  ships  before  each  port  in 
order  to  carry  out  the  proclamation. 

The  blockade  proved  a  huge  undertak- 
ing. The  coast  of  the  Confederacy  stretched 
from  the  Potomac  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
contained  200  harbors.  Every  kind  of 
vessel,  even  old  ferryboats,  had  to  be 
pressed  into  use  as  men-of-war.  The 
Hues  of  blockade  were  gradually  drawn 
closer  until  within  a  year  trade  from  south- 
ern ports  almost  entirely  ceased.  Only  one- 
fiftieth   as  much  cotton  was  exported  in   1862   as  in   i860. 

The  Southern  people  made  great  efforts  to  outwit  the  ''sea- 
dogs"  watching  their  coast.  Shipbuilders  in  the  South,  the 
West  Indies,  and  in  Great  Britain  constructed  swift  block- 
ade runners,  with  sides  so  low  that  at  a  little  distance  in 
the  night  they  were  almost  invisible.  These  vessels  often 
succeeded  in  escaping  from  unfrequented  harbors,  with  car- 
goes of  cotton,  bound  for  the  Bermudas  and  the  Bahamas. 
They  brought  back  supplies  for  the  army  or  goods  which  the 
South  could  not  produce. 

Many  stories  are  still  told  in  the  South  about  the  bravery 
and  success  of  the  captains  of  the  blockade  runners.  When  a 
ship  was  able  to  bring  a  cargo  from  Europe  the  profits  were 


Confederate  Sol- 
dier IN  Uniform 


4o6  THE   BEGINNING   OF    CIVIL   WAR 

worth  the  trouble.  At  one  time  cotton  was  $2.50  a  pound  in 
Liverpool,  though  it  was  only  four  or  five  cents  a  pound  in 
Charleston. 

The  Confederacy  seeks  allies.  —  It  was  so  important  for 
the  South  to  trade  with  England  and  Europe  that  its  leaders 
sought  help  abroad  to  break  the  blockade.  They  needed 
money  and  ships.  They  were  in  much  the  same  situation 
as  the  colonies,  which  obtained  suppHes  and  a  navy  from 
Europe  during  the  Revolution. 

The  governing  classes  of  England  and  France  sympathized 
with  the  South.  They  were  eager  to  profit  by  the  free  trade 
which  the  Confederacy  offered.  There  was  no  danger  that 
the  Southerners,  like  the  Northerners,  would  become  their 
rivals  in  manufacturing.  Many  shrewd  EngHsh  and  French 
statesmen  were  delighted  that  the  great  republic  seemed  fall- 
ing into  pieces.  The  workingmen  of  England,  however,  and 
most  of  the  middle  class,  believed  that  the  North  was  fight- 
ing the  battle  of  free  labor. 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  of  cotton,  EngHsh  merchants 
and  manufacturers  wished  the  war  to  end  speedily.  Many 
cotton  mills  were  closed  and  their  employees  dismissed.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  even  the  Southerners  suffered  as  much  as 
the .  employees  of  the  English  cotton  factories.  Many  were 
kept  from  starvation  only  by  food  which  the  British  govern- 
ment furnished. 

England  and  the  South.  —  Before  the  year  1861  was  ended, 
England  was  nearly  drawn  into  the  struggle.  The  Confederate 
government  sent  two  commissioners,  Mason  and  Stidell,  to 
persuade  the  EngHsh  and  the  French  to  acknowledge  that  the 
Confederacy  was  an  independent  nation.  The  EngHsh  gov- 
ernment had  already  announced  that  it  would  treat  the 
Southerners  as  ^'beUigerents,"  that  is,  as  persons  having  a 
right  to  carry  on  war,  rather  than  as  rebels  against  the  United 
States.     This  action  made  many  people  in  the  North  very 


ENGLAND   AND   THE   SOUTH  407 

angry.  Had  England  formally  acknowledged  the  independ- 
ence of  the  South  the  United  States  would  have  taken  the  act 
as  a  declaration  of  war.  The  excitement  was  increased  whert 
news  came  that  the  commander  of  a  Union  war-ship  had 
stopped  the  British  steamer  Trent,  on  which  Mason  and  Sli- 
dell  were  travehng,  and  had  arrested  them.  The  act  caused 
much  rejoicing  in  the  North,  but  President  Lincoln  at  once 
saw  that  it  was  contrary  to  the  principles  that  the  United 
States  had  defended  in  181 2.  He  felt  that  the  United  States 
could  not  deny  the  right  of 
search  at  one  time  and 
make  use  of  it  at  another. 
Consequently  he  ordered 
the  release  of  the  commis- 
sioners. The  English  gov- 
ernment had  already  de- 
spatched troops  to  Canada,  the  Cruiser  "Alabama" 
and  but  for  the  influence 

of  Queen  Victoria  would  have  tried  to  take  advantage  of  the 
blunder  to  humihate  the  United  States. 

No  sooner  had  this  question  been  settled,  than  the  United 
States  learned  that  English  ship-builders  were  constructing 
war  vessels  for  the  South.  Two  ships,  the  Florida  and  the 
Alabama,  sailed  from  England  in  1862  to  fight  for  the  Con- 
federate cause.  They  were  not  strong  enough  to  attack  north- 
ern cities  or  to  break  the  blockade  of  southern  ports.  They 
therefore  ranged  the  seas,  destroying  Union  merchant  vessels 
until  they  were  themselves  captured.  In  permitting  these 
vessels  to  sail  the  English  government  was  in  the  wrong,  and 
was  later  compelled  to  pay  heavy  damages. 

Battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21, 1861.  —  With  soldiers  untrained 
no  great  battles  could  occur  in  the  first  months  of  the 
war.  There  was  fighting  in  Missouri  between  the  Unionists 
and  Secessionists,   and  the  Unionists  succeeded  in  holding 


4o8 


THE    BEGINNING    OF    CIVIL   WAR 


the  state.  In  Kentucky  ballots  rather  than  bullets  decided 
whether  the  state  should  secede.  When  the  votes  were 
counted  it  was  found  that  a  large  majority  were  Union  men. 


Map  of  Campaigns  in  Virginia 

In  the  western  counties  of  Virginia,  Northern  troops  drove 
out  a  small  army  sent  by  the  governor  of  the  state.  The 
Northern  leader  was  George  B.  McClellan,  a  West  Pointer 
who  had  fought  in  the  Mexican  War. 

It  was  near  Washington  that  the  first  important  battle 


BATTLE    OF   BULL   RUN  409 

took  place.  The  Confederate  General  Beauregard  was  in 
command  of  a  small  army  at  Manassas  Junction,  while  Gen- 
eral Joseph  E.  Johnston,  with  a  few  thousand  more  troops,  was 
at  Winchester  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  not  far  from  the  rail- 
road running  through  Manassas  Gap  to  Manassas  Junction. 
The  aged  General  Scott,  who  was  still  at  the  head  of  the 
United  States  army,  and  his  second  in  command.  General 
Irwin  McDowell,  forced  by  the  impatience  of  the  North, 
planned  an  attack  on  Beauregard.  Part  of  the  plan  was  that 
a  body  of  Federal  troops  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  should 
keep  Johnston  busy. 

It  soon  appeared  that  railroads  and  telegraphs  were  as 
important  in  war  as  in  commerce.  Johnston  escaped  from  his 
enemy  in  the  Shenandoah  and  began  sending  reinforcements 
over  the  Manassas  Gap  Railroad  to  Beauregard.  Scott,  hear- 
ing the  news  from  the  Shenandoah,  telegraphed  McDowell 
that  he  had  two  armies  to  fight  rather  than  one. 

McDowell  persisted  in  making  the  attack.  His  plan  of 
battle  was  excellent,  and  everything  went  well  until  about 
three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  By  that  time  the  Union 
and  the  Confederate  troops  were  equally  exhausted.  Only 
one  part  of  the  Confederate  line,  commanded  by  General 
Thomas  J.  Jackson,  stood  firm.  A  brother  officer  exclaimed, 
''See  Jackson,  he  stands  like  a  stone  wall."  Henceforth 
Jackson  bore  the  name  of  "Stonewall."  Just  then  another 
division  of  Johnston's  men  appeared,  brought  by  the  rail- 
road. They  were  fresh  and  were  skillfully  led.  The  exhausted 
Union  soldiers  wavered,  broke,  and  fled.  In  the  terrible 
panic  which  followed,  many  never  stopped  until  they  reached 
the  neighborhood  of  Washington,  thirty  miles  distant. 

Lessons  of  the  Battle.  —  The  North  and  South  learned 
valuable  lessons  from  the  battle.  The  Northern  people  had 
counted  upon  a  speedy  victory.  Such  a  defeat  was  a  terrible 
blow,  but  after  the   first  gloom  passed  off,   the  people  set 


4IO  THE   BEGINNING   OF   CIVIL   WAR 

about  preparing  for  a  more  serious  struggle  than  they  had 
expected.  Some  of  the  Southern  soldiers  thought  that  the 
war  was  ended  and  started  for  home.  Their  army  was  almost 
as  disorganized  by  victory  as  the  Northern  army  was  by 
defeat. 

The  officers  on  both  sides  realized  that  time  was  needed 
to  transform  the  brave  and  self-sacrificing  volunteers  into 
real  soldiers,  capable  of  manoeuvering  on  the  battlefield 
as  well  as  on  the  parade  ground.  McClellan,  an  excellent 
organizer  and  drill-master,  took  charge  of  the  Northern 
army,  now  called  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  while  Johnston 
commanded  the  Southern  or  Army  of  Northern  Virginia. 
Robert  E.  Lee  acted  as  President  Davis's  chief-of-staff.  Gen- 
eral Scott,  weakened  by  age,  soon  withdrew,  so. that  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  was  directed  by  McClellan  alone. 

Use  of  Sea  Power.  —  The  North  used  its  rapidly  con- 
structed navy  not  only  to  establish  a  blockade  before  Southern 
ports,  but  also  to  occupy  important  points  along  the  coast  of 
the  Confederacy.  In  August,  1861,  Fort  Hatteras  on  the 
North  Carolina  shore  was  captured,  and  in  November  Port 
Royal,  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  coast,  only  50  miles 
from  Charleston,  South  Carolina.^  A  little  later  the  North 
gained  a  foothold  at  the  mouth  of  the  Savannah  River. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  advantages  had  the  North  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War? 
The  South?     Of  what  use  were  the  slaves  to  the  South  during  the  War? 

2.  Why  did  the  North  have  the  advantage  on  the  ocean?  How  did  the 
Appalachian  barrier  affect  the  war?  What  railroads  pierced  it?  To  which 
army  were  the  Shenandoah  and  the  Great  Appalachian  valleys  of  most  use? 
Was  Richmond  easy  of  approach? 

3.  What  rivers  formed  great  highways  into  the  South?  Why  were  they 
useful  for  the  North  and  harmful  for  the  South? 

^  Fort  Caroline,  the  French  Huguenot  settlement,  destroyed  by  Menendez 
in  1565,  was  at  Port  Royal. 


QUESTIONS    AND    EXERCISES 


411 


4.  What  railroads  were  especially  important  in  the  Civil  War?  Were  they 
as  useful  as  rivers?  Why  were  Vicksburg,  Manassas  Junction,  Bowling  Green, 
Corinth,  and  Chattanooga  important  places? 

5.  What  advantages  did  the  Southern  soldiers  have  over  the  Northern? 

6.  What  did  it  mean  to  declare  the  Southern  ports  in  a  state  of  blockade? 
How  did  the  blockade  affect  the  South?  What  were  the  blockade  runners 
doing?     Why  did  they  risk  much? 

7.  What  help  did  the  Confederates  seek?  Who  sympathized  with  them? 
Who  did  not?  What  class  in  England  suffered  greatly  from  the  Civil  War  in 
the  United  States? 

8.  Why  did  the  United  States  have  trouble  with  England?  Why  did  the 
United  States  release  JMason  and  Slidell?  Who  in  England  did  help  the  South? 
What  should  the  English  government  have  done  in  the  matter? 

9.  Describe  the  first  important  battle  of  the  Civil  War.  What  part  did 
the  railroad  and  the  telegraph  have  in  the  battle?  Why  did  the  Confederate 
army  win?  What  did  the  officers  of  the  North  and  of  the  South  learn  from  the 
battle? 

10.   What  successes  had  the  Northern  navy  before  the  end  of  the  first  year? 

EXERCISES 


1.  Find  on  a  map  (see  page  401),  the  rivers,  railroads,  and  important  towns 
mentioned  in  this  chapter,  and  tell  why  each  one  was  mentioned. 

2.  How  was  the  attempt  of  the  South  to  secure  help  from  England  and 
France  like  the  attempt  of  the  colonies  to  secure  help  from  France,  Holland, 
and  Spain  in  the  Revolution? 

Important  Date: 

July  21,  1 86 1.     The  Battle  of  Bull  Run. 


Confederate  Battle 
Flag 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 


STORY   OF   VICTORY   AND   DEFEAT 

A  Long  Struggle.  —  Compared  with  other  recent  wars, 
the  Civil  War  had  by  1862  lasted  a  long  time.  Two  years 
before,  France  had  begun  a  war  with  Austria  in  April  and  it 
had  ended  in  July.    A  few  years  later,  a  war  between  Aus- 


The  Line  of  Defense  in  January,  1862 

tria  and  Prussia  opened  in  June  and  closed  in  August.  The 
Civil  War  was  to  last  three  years  longer,  although  within  a 
year  and  a  half  it  was  clear  that  the  North  was  slowly  gain- 
ing the  advantage.  The  change  was  due  to  campaigns  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  for  the  positions  of  the  armies  in 
Virginia  remained  almost  the  same  in  spite  of  the  most  des- 
perate fighting. 


CONFEDERATE   LINE   OF   DEFENSE    BROKEN     413 

Confederate  Line  of  Defense  Broken.  —  In  January, 
1862,  the  Confederate  line  of  defense  ran  from  the  fortifica- 
tions at  Columbus  on  the  Mississippi  River,  through  Fort 
Henry  on  the  Tennessee  River  and  Fort  Donelson,  twelve 
miles  away  on  the  Cumberland,  past  Bowling  Green,  to  Cum- 
berland Gap.  The  position  of  Columbus  was  very  strong.  It 
was  situated  on  bluffs  so  high  that  it  could  not  be  reached  by 
guns  fired  from  armed  steamers,  while  the  plunging  fire  of 
its  batteries  would  destroy  any  vessels  which  attempted  to 
pass.  If  the  Confederate  line  was  to  be  broken,  the  attack 
must  be  made  elsewhere.  The  Union  officers  concluded  to 
make  it  at  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson.  The  expedition 
was  commanded  by  General  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  a  graduate  from 
West  Point,  who  had  fought  in  the  Mexican  War. 


A  Mississippi  Iron-clad  Gunboat 

General  Grant's  army  was  assisted  by  armored  gunboats, 
a  new  kind  of  war  vessel.  Seven  had  been  built  at  St.  Louis 
in  1861.  They  did  not  resemble  ordinary  river  steamboats. 
Their  sides  were  sloping  and  built  of  heavy  oak  planking. 
In  front  the  oak  was  twenty-four  inches  thick  and  covered 
by  iron  plates  two  and  a  half  inches  thick.  The  sides  next  to 
the  machinery  were  also  covered  with  iron.  As  the  gunboats 
moved  through  the  water  they  looked  like  great  clumsy 
turtles.^ 

^  A  few  armored  vessels  had  been  used  in  Europe  nine  years  before  in  the 
Crimean  War. 


414  STORY   OF   VICTORY   AND    DEFEAT 

Capture  of  Fort  Donelson.  —  The  little  war  fleet  steamed 
up  the  Tennessee  to  within  600  yards  of  Fort  Henry  and  com- 
pelled it  to  surrender  after  a  lively  cannonade.  A  similar 
attack  on  Fort  Donelson  was  not  so  successful,  for  two  of  the 
gunboats  had  their  steering  gear  shot  away  and  drifted  about 
helplessly.  Grant  ordered  an  immediate  attack  by  his  army, 
and  after  severe  fighting  the  Confederate  commander  sur- 
rendered with  14,000  men.  The  news  of  this  success  filled 
the  North  with  rejoicing.  It  was  the  first  important  vic- 
tory which  the  Union  troops  had  gained. 

The  loss  of  the  two  forts  which  guarded  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Tennessee  and  the  Cumberland  threw  the  Confederate 
defense  into  confusion.  Both  Columbus  and  Bowling  Green 
were  abandoned.  Nashville,  the  capital  of  Tennessee,  situ- 
ated on  the  Cumberland  River,  was  also  abandoned  by  the 
Confederate  troops  within  ten  days.  Light  gunboats  steamed 
up  the  Tennessee  to  northern  Mississippi  and  Alabama, 
destroying  or  capturing  Southern  steamboats  and  supplies. 
The  Confederate  armies  established  a  new  line  of  defense 
running  from  Memphis  through  Corinth  and  Chattanooga. 
This  line  was  also  broken  after  one  of  the  severest  battles 
of  the  war,  that  of  Shiloh,  near  Pittsburg  Landing  on  the 
Tennessee  River. ^  Corinth  was  then  taken,  and  a  gun- 
boat fleet  moved  down  the  Mississippi  and  forced  Memphis 
to  surrender.  The  Confederates  held  thereafter  no  other 
important  fortified  place  on  the  Mississippi  River  except 
Vicksburg,  for  New  Orleans  had  meanwhile  been  captured. 

Capture  of  New  Orleans. — The  capture  of  New  Orleans 
was  an  exploit  of  the  Union  navy,  under  the  leadership  of 

1  At  Pittsburg  Landing,  about  twenty  miles  from  Corinth,  Grant  acted  as 
if  he  had  forgotten  how  near  the  enemy  was.  The  Confederates  under  Albert 
Sidney  Johnston  surprised  him  and  drove  his  army  back  in  disorder  during  the 
first  day's  fighting.  The  great  Confederate  leader  was  killed  in  battle.  Dur- 
ing the  following  night  General  Buell  reinforced  Grant  with  a  fresh  army.  The 
^second  day  Grant  drove  the  Confederates  off  the  field. 


LONSITUOE     WEST 


REFERENCE    MAP 


FOR   THE 


CIVIL  WAR,    1861-65 


SCALE    OF    MILES 


Early  Seceding  States  thus  YELLOW        . 

Later  Seceding  States  thus  ^^^k'^ 

Blockading  Vessels  thus  ^?-3        ■ — 


FEDERAL   SUCCESSES  415 

Flag-officer  David  G.  Farragut,  a  native  of  Tennessee,  who 
had  remained  loyal  to  the  national  government.  Farragut 
fought  his  way,  April  24,  past  the  forts  which  guarded  the 
river  below  the  city.  A  Federal  army  soon  landed  and  took 
possession.  The  fall  of  New  Orleans,  the  largest  city  and 
the  principal  seaport  of  the  South,  was  a  great  blow  to  the 
Confederacy.  It  opened  the  lower  Mississippi  to  Northern 
fleets  and  made  the  blockade  easier. 

Nothing  further  was  accompUshed  in  the  West  by  either 
side  for  several  months.  General  Bragg  led  a  large  Confed- 
erate army  through  the  Appalachian  Valley  into  Kentucky, 
hoping  to  rally  the  people  of  that  state  to  the  Southern 
cause.  He  was  checked  in  the  neighborhood  of  Louis- 
ville. He  then  retreated  into  Tennessee,  where  at  the  close 
of  the  year  he  fought  the  desperate  battle  of  Murfreesboro, 
but  failed  to  dislodge  the  Federals  from  the  central  part 
of  the  state.  The  beginning  of  1863  found  the  Federal 
troops  in  the  positions  they  had  won  in  Tennessee  and 
northern  Mississippi. 

Federal  Plans  in  Virginia.  —  The  partial  success  of  the  Fed- 
eral plans  in  the  West  was  not  repeated  in  the  East.  The 
hopes  of  the  North  were  centered  on  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
which  McClellan  had  organized  and  which  numbered  185,000 
men.  .  McClellan  planned  to  transport  this  army  to  the  old 
Yorktown  peninsula  and  to  advance  upon  Richmond.  In 
March,  1862,  the  appearance  in  Hampton  Roads  of  a  new 
Confederate  fighting  ship  threatened  his  plan,  for  a  day  at 
least. 

"Merrimac"  and  "Monitor."  —  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  the  national  government  had  abandoned  the  navy  yard 
in  Norfolk,  Virginia.  A  powerful  frigate,  the  Merrimac,  had 
been  set  on  fire  and  then  sunk.  The  Confederates  raised  it, 
cut  away  its  masts,  and  boxed  the  main  part  of  the  deck  with 
sloping  sides  covered  with  heavy  iron  plates.     It  was  a  much 


4i6  STORY    OF   VICTORY   AND    DEFEAT 

stronger  vessel  than  any  of  the  gunboats  recently  completed 
at  St.  Louis. 

On  March  8  the  Merrimac  steamed  out  of  Norfolk  and 
attacked  the  frigates  on  blockade  duty  in  Hampton  Roads. 
One  it  rammed  and  sank,  another  it  set  on  fire.  The  cannon 
balls  of  the  Union  guns  glanced  from  its  iron  plates  like  rubber 
balls.  Its  commander,  satisfied  with  his  day's  work,  steamed 
back  to  Norfolk,  expecting  to  destroy  the  rest  of  the  fleet 

the  next  day.  When  the 
news  of  what  had  happen- 
ed reached  .Washington, 
the  government  was  thrown 
into  a  panic,  for  President 
Lincoln  and  his  officials 
believed  that  the  Merrimac 

would   move    up    the  Po- 

The  "  Monitor  "  AND  THE  "  Merrimac  "  ,      _  . 

tomac    and    fire    on    the 

capital.     The  sea  power  appeared  to  have  passed  to   the 

Confederates. 

Fortunately  for  the  Union  cause,  John  Ericsson,  a  Swedish 
engineer,  had  just  completed  in  the  Brooklyn  navy  yard  a 
vessel  equally  formidable,  called  the  Monitor.  Its  deck  was 
raised  only  a  few  feet  above  the  water  fine.  Upon  the  deck 
was  placed  a  round  gun-house  or  turret,  turned  by  machin- 
ery, so  that  the  two  heavy  guns  could  be  pointed  in  any 
direction.  Those  who  saw  it  for  the  first  time  compared  it  to 
a  ''cheese-box  on  a  raft." 

When  the  Merrimac  moved  out  of  Norfolk,  on  March  9,  to 
complete  the  destruction  of  the  Federal  fleet,  it  was  met  by 
this  strange  antagonist,  scarcely  one-fourth  its  size.  For 
four  hours  the  two  cannonaded  each  other.  The  Monitor 
had  the  advantage  in  rapidity  of  motion,  so  that  it  could 
avoid  the  heavy  blows  of  the  Merrimac^ s  ram.  Finally  the 
Merrimac  gave  up  the  fight  and  retreated  to  Norfolk.     Both 


GAINS   AND    LOSSES  417 

sides  claimed  the  victory,  but  the  Merrimac  did  not  come  out 
again,  and  two  months  later  it  was  blown  up  by  its  own  men 
when  they  were  obliged  to  abandon  Norfolk. 

The  battle  of  the  iron-clads  in  Hampton  Roads  interested 
the  whole  world.  Builders  of  naval  ships  in  England  and 
Europe  saw  that  the  older  kind  of  battle-ship  was  now  useless 
and  that  they  had  to  reconstruct  their  navies.  The  ''  Super- 
Dreadnought"  of  to-day  does  not  much  resemble  the  little 
Monitor,  but  the  use  of  the  turret  is  the  same. 

Winning  Victories  and  losing  a  Campaign.  —  The  success 
of  the  Monitor  enabled  McClellan  to  begin  his  campaign. 
His  army  was  carried  down  to  the  neighborhood  of  York- 
town  by  water.  It  was  well  organized,  and  the  soldiers  had 
confidence  in  their  leader.  McClellan  was  a  good  manager. 
He  made  full  use  of  railroad  and  telegraph.  As  his  army 
marched  forward  a  telegraph  Hne  was  run  to  his  new  head- 
quarters. He  could  telegraph  to  the  President  or  the  Sec- 
retary of  War  at  any  moment.  If  the  army  paused,  wires 
were  run  to  the  headquarters  of  every  division  of  troops,  so 
that  McClellan  could  send  his  orders  instantly. 

McClellan  was  not  a  "fighter"  like  Grant.  He  listened 
to  rumors  which  declared  that  the  Confederates  had  more 
soldiers  than  he,  although  he  had  twice  as  many.  He  was 
angry  because  the  government  kept  McDowell  with  40,000 
men  near  Washington,  instead  of  sending  them  to  aid  in  the 
capture  of  Richmond.  Just  at  that  time  Jackson  had  thrown 
the  Washington  officials  into  a  panic  by  a  raid  down  the 
Shenandoah  Valley  as  far  as  the  Potomac.  McClellan  won  sev- 
eral victories,  but  was  finally  obliged  to  abandon  the  attempt 
to  capture  Richmond,  although  once  he  was  within  four 
miles  of  the  city.  The  commander  of  the  Confederate  army 
at  first  was  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  but  he  was  wounded  and 
General  Lee  took  his  place. 

Lee's  Successes.  —  Some  weeks  later,  in  the  last  days  of 


4i8 


STORY    OF   VICTORY   AND    DEFEAT 


August,  1862,  Lee  severely  defeated  a  Union  army  a  second 
time  on  the  old  field  of  Bull  Run,  and  drove  it  back  on  Wash- 
ington. It  was  his  turn  to  plan  an  invasion.  In  September 
he  marched  north,  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  crossed  the 
Potomac  into  Maryland.  This  was  an  attempt  to  carry  the 
war  on  to  Union  soil  and  to  relieve  Virginia.     McClellan  was 


Where  the  Second  Battle  of  Bull  Run  began 


recalled  from  the  Peninsula  to  defend  Washington.  On  Sep- 
tember 17,  with  an  army  twice  as  large  as  Lee's,  he  checked 
Lee  at  Antietam.  His  methodical  caution  permitted  Lee  to 
return  to  Virginia.  McClellan  was  now  removed  from  com- 
mand. In  December,  a  new  commander.  General  Burnside, 
recklessly  hurled  the  Union  army  against  Lee  on  the  heights 
behind  Fredericksburg,  and  was  repulsed  with  frightful 
losses.  More  than  twelve  thousand  of  his  best  troops  were 
left  on  the  battle  field.  After  that  the  armies  rested  and  the 
year  closed  in  Virginia  much  as  it  had  opened.  Gloom  and 
discouragement  prevailed  in  the  North.  Two  years  had 
passed,  and  the  South  was  unconquered.  Instead,  it  was 
rejoicing  in  victories. 

A  New  Weapon,  January  i,  1863.  —  In  this  time  of  disap- 
pointment Lincoln  decided  to  try  a  new  weapon  against  the 


THE    SLAVES    SET    FREE 


419 


South.  During  the  war  the  slaves  had  remained  faithful  to 
their  masters,  generally  in  ignorance  of  what  it  all  meant. 
They  raised  the  food  which  suppHed  the  Confederate  armies, 
or  acted  as  teamsters  and  laborers,  or  as  servants  to  the  of- 
ficers. Their  work  relieved  the  Southerners  so  that  more 
men  could  serve  as  soldiers. 

On  January  i,  1863,  Lincoln  announced  that  henceforth  the 
slaves  in  all  the  Confederate 
states  not  at  that  time  held  by 
Union  troops  would  be  considered 
as  free.  He  hoped  that  this 
would  weaken  the  South.  It 
would  mean  that  wherever  North- 
ern armies  went  after  that  date 
the  slaves  would  be  made  free 
and  cease  to  support  the  Confed- 
erates. 

Lincoln  hoped  for  even  more 
from  his  emancipation  proclama- 
tion. There  were  increasing  num- 
bers of  people  in  England  and  in 

the  North  who  looked  upon  slavery  as  a  great  wrong. 
Lincoln  himself  said,  ''If  slavery  is  not  wrong,  nothing  is 
wrong,"  but  he  wanted  to  save  the  Union,  and  ''not  either 
to  save  or  destroy  slavery."  He  thought  that  was  for  the 
Southern  states  to  do.  He  said,  "If  I  could  save  the  Union 
without  freeing  any  slave,  I  would  do  it,  and  if  I  could  save 
it  by  freeing  all  the  slaves,  I  would  do  it.  And  if  I  could 
save  it  by  freeing  some,  and  leaving  others  alone,  I  would 
also  do  that."  He  finally  decided  that  he  could  save  the 
Union  only  by  destroying  slavery. 

Results  of  the  Emancipation  Proclamation.  —  The  only 
immediate  effect  of  the  decision  was  to  encourage  those  in  the 
North  opposed  to  slavery  and  to  win  the  sympathy  of  the 


Robert  E.  Lee 


420  STORY   OF   VICTORY   AND    DEFEAT 

English  people.  The  war  became  more  clearly  a  war  against 
slavery.  Abolitionists  and  Unionists  were  now  closely 
united  in  a  common  cause,  for  the  success  of  the  North  meant 
both  the  saving  of  the  Union  and  the  freeing  of  slaves. 

Lincoln's  Plan  of  paying  the  Owners  of  Slaves.  —  Slavery 
had  been  gradually  breaking  down  in  the  loyal  border  states 
and  in  the  other  slave  states  wherever  the  Union  army  went. 
In  such  places  the  negroes  were  roaming  about  working  for 
whomsoever  they  pleased  and  whenever  they  pleased.  Many 
of  them  found  employment  as  soldiers,  or  laborers  about  the 
Union  camps.  In  1861  Congress  had  freed  the  slaves  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  and  had  paid  the  owners  for  their  loss. 
Lincoln  was  anxious  to  extend  the  same  arrangement  to  the 
border  states.  He  urged  that  Congress  compensate  all  owners 
of  slaves  in  the  South  who  would  recognize  the  Union.  His 
generous  proposals  were  not  accepted  by  the  border  states 
and  were  soon  forgotten  in  the  heat  of  war. 

Will  the  Union  fail?  —  The  third  year  opened  darker  than 
ever  for  the  Union.  Lincoln's  proclamation  of  Emancipation 
gave  offense  to  the  northern  Democrats,  who  thought  that 
the  President  had  no  power  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  the 
states  whether  in  time  of  peace  or  war.  Lincoln  had  said 
that  he  could  not  in  time  of  peace,  but  that  the  war  gave 
him  the  power.  Besides,  the  Democrats  had  never  believed 
Lincoln  capable  of  saving  the  Union.  Men  asked  whether 
it  would  not  be  better  to  yield  to  the  South  and  stop  so 
costly  a  war.  Many  of  the  soldiers  were  weary  of  the  strug- 
gle. Officers  said  that  a  thousand  deserted  every  week.  The 
government  was  unable  to  obtain  sufficient  volunteers  in 
some  states,  especially  in  New  York,  and  drafted  men  — 
that  is,  chose  them  by  lot  —  for  the  army. 

Cost  of  the  War.  —  The  expenses  of  the  national  govern- 
ment before  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  had  been  small, 
reaching  in  i860  only  to  the   sum  of   $63,000,000  a  year. 


COST   OF   THE    WAR  421 

They  were  nearly  twenty  times  that  before  the  war  closed. 
At  first  Congress  was  afraid  to  lay  heavy  taxes,  lest  the  people 
should  lose  their  enthusiasm  to  preserve  the  Union.  By  1862 
Congress  began  to  tax  everything.  Among  the  taxes  was  one 
like  the  Stamp  Tax  of  1765,  providing  for  the  use  of  stamps  on 
receipts,  legal  papers,  and  other  documents.  Congress  also 
authorized  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  borrow  large 
sums,  giving  interest-bearing  bonds  in  return.  In  1862  it 
was  decided  to  issue  "Greenbacks"  instead  of  depending 
alone  on  taxes  and  on  selling  bonds.  The  Greenbacks  were 
like  the  Continental  money  issued  during  the  Revolutionary 
War.  Prices  in  paper  money  rose  until  they  were  more  than 
twice  as  high  as  prices  in  gold  or  silver.  Very  little  coin 
was  in  circulation.  In  order  to  sell  its  bonds  the  government 
aided  in  the  estabhshment  of  National  Banks,  permitting 
them  to  issue  bank  notes  if  they  bought  government  bonds 
of  a  value  greater  than  the  amount  of  the  notes  issued. 

If  the  National  government  found  difficulties  in  raising 
money,  the  Confederate  government  had  difficulties  still 
greater.  It  rehed  on  the  cotton  crop  as  a  means  of  borrow- 
ing money  in  Europe,  but  the  cotton  could  not  be  exported. 
It  also  issued  paper  money,  which  lost  value  much  faster  than 
the  Greenbacks. 

Gettysburg,  July,  1863.  —  In  May,  1863,  the  Union  army 
made  an  attempt  to  march  overland  against  Richmond, 
only  to  be  defeated  agc'in  by  Lee  at  Chancellors ville.  But 
the  victory  was  costly  to  the  Confederates,  for  during  the 
battle  "Stonewall"  Jackson  was  accidentally  shot  by  his  own 
men. 

General  Lee  concluded  to  carry  the  war  again  into  the 
northern  states.  He  befieved  that  a  decisive  victory  near 
Philadelphia  or  Baltimore  would  end  the  struggle.  The 
northern  Democrats  would  rise  against  the  Republican  Presi- 
dent.    Their  sons  would  cease  volunteering  in  the  Union 


422 


STORY   OF   VICTORY   AND    DEFEAT 


army.  The  bankers  would  refuse'  to  lend  their  money- 
England  and  France  would  recognize  the  Confederacy  as  ar 
independent  republic. 

Lee  advanced,  this  time  by  way  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
and  crossed  Maryland  into  Pennsylvania.  Once  his  cavaln 
approached  within  three  miles  of  Harrisburg.  General  George 
G.  Meade  was  now  in  command  of  the  Union  army.     He 


The  Gettysbueg  National  Military  Park 
Showing  the  Battleground  and  Monuments  to  those  who  Fell 

met  Lee  at  the  little  town  of  Gettysburg.  The  two  armies 
took  up  stations  on  parallel  ridges.  The  Confederates  were 
on  Seminary  Ridge,  named  for  a  Lutheran  school  situatec 
there.  The  Union  army  was  a  mile  away  on  Cemetery  Ridge 
where  the  town  cemetery  was  located.  The  battle  raged  foi 
two  days  without  decisive  result,  although  the  Confederates 
appeared  to  be  gaining. 

On  the  third  day,  July  3,  1863,  Lee  decided  to  strike  a  deci- 
sive blow.  General  Pickett  was  ordered  to  charge  the  centei 
of  the  Union  line,  which  was  under  the  command  of  Generaj 
Hancock.  For  two  hours  before  the  charge  115  cannon  bom- 
barded the  Union  army.  When  Lee  thought  that  it  had 
been  thrown  into  confusion,  Pickett,  with  15,000  Confederate 
veterans,  advanced  across  a  valley  of  orchards,  fields,  and 


GETTYSBURG   AND   VICKSBURG  423 

ravines,  and  up  the  slopes  of  the  ridge.  Two  of  the  bravest 
officers  of  the  Civil  War  were  pitted  against  each  other,  Han- 
cock against  Pickett.  Pickett's  men  advanced.  Shot  poured 
into  their  ranks  from  every  side.  Men  fell  by  companies. 
And  yet  on  they  went,  up  the  hill.  A  hundred  or  so  reached 
the  Union  line  and  fought  hand  to  hand,  only  to  fall  or  be 
made  prisoners. 

The  battle  of  Gettysburg  stopped  the  invasion  of  the 
North.  On  the  Fourth  of  July  Lee  slowly,  painfully,  sadly 
returned  to  Virginia.  The  crisis  for  the  North  was  past. 
But  at  what  a  cost!  Lee  had  left  behind  28,000  men,  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing;  Meade,  23,000.  This  was  the  end  of 
the  fighting  in  Virginia  in  1863. 

The  Capture  of  Vicksburg,  July  3,  1863.  —  The  third  day 
of  July,  1863,  was  a  memorable  day  in  the  Civil  War.  On 
the  same  day  that  Meade  turned  Lee  back,  Grant  captured 
Vicksburg.  This  was  a  natural  fortress  set  on  high  bluffs, 
footed  with  marshes  and  rivers. 

Since  Grant's  successes  on  the  Mississippi  in  1862,  he  had 
been  preparing  for  the  capture  of  Vicksburg.  The  Union 
army  tried  to  take  the  town  first  by  assault,  but  failing,  settled 
down  to  a  regular  siege.  The  people  of  Vicksburg  still  tell 
of  the  horrors  of  the  last  weeks  of  the  siege  —  how  they  were 
obliged  to  hide  in  caves  to  avoid  bursting  shells;  how,  finally, 
they  were  forced  to  eat  shoe-leather  to  keep  from  starving; 
how  fathers,  brothers,  husbands,  and  sons  died  in  the 
trenches. 

The  Turning  of  the  Tide.  —  The  Confederates  lost  an  army 
of  30,000  with  the  surrender  of  Vicksburg.  Three  states, 
Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Arkansas,  were  cut  off  from  the  rest 
of  the  Confederacy.  Union  fleets  sailed  up  and  down  the 
Mississippi.  The  Mississippi  Valley  lay  at  the  mercy  of  the 
Union  armies. 


424  STORY   OF   VICTORY   AND    DEFEAT 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  were  the  chief  points  in  the  Confederate  line  of  defense  at  the 
beginning  of  1862? 

2.  Where  did  Grant  begin  the  attack  on  the  Confederate  line  of  defense? 
Describe  the  gunboats  which  assisted  him.  Why  was  the  capture  of  Fort  Henry 
and  Fort  Donelson  regarded  as  a  great  loss  to  the  Confederate  cause  and  a 
great  gain  to  the  Union?  What  other  points  did  the  Union  army  of  the  West 
capture  during  the  campaign? 

3.  Who  captured  New  Orleans?  Why  was  its  capture  a  great  loss  for 
the  Confederate  States?  What  advantage  did  its  capture  give  to  the  United 
States? 

4.  What  did  General  Bragg  try  to  do? 

5.  What  was  McClellan's  plan  in  1862?  What  would  have  been  the  result 
of  the  success  of  the  Merrimac?  Describe  the  Merrimac  and  the  Monitor. 
Why  were  Europeans  interested  in  the  battle  of  the  Merrimac  and  the  Monitor  ? 

6.  In  what  ways  was  McClellan  a  great  leader?  Why  was  he  unsuccess- 
ful?    What  was  the  result  of  his  attempt  to  capture  Richmond? 

7.  What  success  did  Lee  have  in  1862?     What  defeat? 

8.  Why  did  Lincoln  declare  the  slaves  in  the  Confederate  States  free? 
What  was  the  effect  of  his  declaration?  What  change  was  taking  place  with 
regard  to  slavery  in  the  border  states?  What  plan  did  Lincoln  urge  on  Con- 
gress? 

9.  How  did  the  United  States  and  the  Confederate  States  obtain  money 
with  which  to  carry  on  the  war? 

10.  Why  was  the  victory  of  Lee  at  Chancellorsville  said  to  be  costly  for  the 
Confederates?     What  was  his  plan  after  this  victory? 

11.  Describe  the  battle  of  Gettysburg.  Why  was  the  result  of  such  great 
importance  for  the  United  States? 

12.  What  success  had  Grant  in  the  West?  What  was  the  result  of  his 
victory? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Find  on  the  map,  page  412,  or  locate  on  an  outline  map  on  the  board, 
the  chief  points  in  the  Confederate  line  of  defense  at  the  beginning  of  1862, 
again  after  the  fall  of  Fort  Donelson,  and  finally  after  the  fall  of  Vicksburg 
in  1863. 

2.  What  resemblance  is  there  between  the  Monitor  and  a  modern  Super- 
Dreadnought? 

Important  Dates: 

January  i,  1863.     Lincoln  declares  the  slaves  in  the  Confederate  States, 

except  the  parts  held  by  the  United  States  army,  to  be  free. 
July  3,  1863.     The  battle  of  Gettysburg  and  the  fall  of  Vicksburg. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

CONQUERING   A   PEACE 

Another  Gate  to  the  Cotton  States.  —  In  the  fall  of  1863 
the  scene  of  war  was  shifted  to  eastern  Tennessee.  The 
prize  of  victory  was  Chattanooga  and  the  passes  south  of  it 
through  the  Appalachians  into  northern  Georgia.  After 
gaining  possession  of  the  city,  the  Union  army  was  defeated 
at  Chickamauga  Creek,  a  few  miles  southward.  Only  the 
courage  and  skill  of  General  George  H.  Thomas,  a  Virginian, 
who  commanded  the  left  of  the  Union  line,  saved  the  army 
from  ruin.  The  rest  of  the  army  was  retreating  in  disorder, 
and  his  troops  were  hemmed  in  on  three  sides,  but  he  could 
not  be  driven  from  his  position.  On  that  day  he  won  the 
name  of  the  '^Rock  of  Chickamauga." 

Soon  after  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  General  Grant  took 
command.  Supported  by  Sherman,  Thomas,  and  Hooker,^ 
he  attacked  the  Confederates  on  Missionary  Ridge  and 
Lookout  Mountain.  Again  General  Thomas's  men  covered 
themselves  with  glory.  Without  waiting  for  orders,  they 
attacked  the  crest  of  the  ridge  immediately  in  front  of  them, 
clambering  over  rocks  and  tree  trunks  in  the  face  of  a  wither- 
ing fire.  The  story  of  their  successful  charge  deserves  a 
place  beside  that  of  Pickett's  charge  at  Gettysburg. 

The  victories  around  Chattanooga  were  as  important  as 
the  capture  of  Vicksburg.     The  gateway  into  the  older  cotton 

^  Hooker's  army  of  23,000  was  sent  from  Virginia,  on  the  railroads,  by  way 
of  Louisville  and  Nashville,  a  distance  of  1192  miles,  in  seven  days.  Long- 
street's  army  had  been  sent  by  rail  to  reinforce  the  Confederates  before  Chick- 
amauga.    Its  route  was  also  roundabout,  through  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia. 


426  CONQUERING   A   PEACE 

states  was  open.     Would  a  Northern  army  pass  through  into 

the  very  heart  of  the  South?     This  question  troubled  the 

Confederate  leaders  at  the  beginning  of  1864. 

Grant  Commander-in-Chief.  —  Lincoln  once  said  that  it 

was  a  bad  plan  to  change  horses  while  crossing  a  stream, 

but  several  times  he  had  been 
obliged  to  change  commanders  of 
the  army.  He  was  always  on 
the  lookout  for  a  general  whom 
he  could  fully  trust.  For  two 
years  he  had  been  watching  the 
straight-forward,  modest,  untir- 
ing soldier  of  Fort  Donelson, 
Vicksburg,  and  Chattanooga.  In 
February,  1864,  he  made  Grant 
Lieutenant-general    and     placed 

him  in  command  of   the  whole 
Ulysses  S.  Grant  ,.-.   .  .       .      ^  „ 

Union  army,  m  the  East  as  well 

as  the  West.  Sherman  was  given  the  immediate  command 
of  the  western  armies,  while  Meade  still  commanded  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  Grant,  assisted  by  Meade,  undertook 
in  May,  1864,  an  advance  upon  Richmond.  On  the  same 
day  Sherman  began  the  invasion  of  Georgia.  For  the  first 
time  all  the  Union  armies  were  to  aid  one  another  in  carry- 
ing out  a  common  plan.  The  Confederates  could  no  longer 
shift  troops  by  rail  from  Virginia  to  the  Southwest  or  from 
the  West  to  Virginia. 

The  Armies  in  1864.  —  The  armies  of  both  North  and 
South  had  long  been  composed  mainly  of  veteran  soldiers. 
The  losses  had  to  be  made  up  by  new  recruits,  but  these 
untried  men  learned  quickly  by  the  experience  and  example  of 
the  older  soldiers.  The  Northern  army  was  gaining  steadily 
in  numbers,  while  the  Southern  army  was  decreasing,  because 
the  North  had  a  far  greater  population  upon  which  to  draw. 


GRANT'S   ADVANCE 


427 


In   1864  the  Union  armies  contained  more  than   twice  as 
many  soldiers  as  the  Confederate  armies. 

Grant's  Advance.  —  In  the  campaign  of  1864  Grant  was 
true  to  his  reputation  as  a  fighter.  His  plan  was  to  march 
overland  upon  Richmond.  He  outnumbered  Lee  two  to  one, 
but  much  of  the  time  Lee  had  the  advantage  of  fighting 
behind  earthworks  which  defended  every  approach  to  the 
Confederate  capital.  The  first  struggle  took  place  in  the  Wil- 
derness, not  far  from  the  battle-field  of  Chancellorsville.  It 
was  not  a  defeat  for  Grant,  but  neither  was  it  a  victory. 


TIllIf!l!U1W«lin»ll 


'^1 


Field-works  for  Defense 
A  necessity  of  modern  warfare 

Other  commanders  might  have  withdrawn  in  order  to  "make 
a  new  start,  but  Grant  ordered  his  army  to  move  around  the 
Confederate  right.  He  resolved  to  hammer  constantly  at 
the  obstacle  and  wear  out  his  antagonist.  Lee's  losses  were 
more  costly  than  Grant's,  because  the  gaps  in  his  ranks  could 
no  longer  be  filled.  Grant  lost  in  the  summer  campaign  as 
many  men  as  Lee  had  in  his  whole  army,  filling  their  places 
with  recruits.  Before  summer  was  over  he  had  laid  siege  to 
Richmond,  though  he  had  not  succeeded  in  breaking  through 
Lee's  lines  of  defense. 

Sheridan  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  —  As  at  the  time  of 
McClellan's  advance  in  1862,  a  Confederate  army  under 
General  Early  was  sent  down  the  Shenandoah  Valley  to  throw 


428  CONQUERING   A   PEACE 

Washington  into  a  panic  and  prevent  reinforcements  being 
sent  to  Grant.  Grant  sent  General  Sheridan,  who  became 
famous  as  a  cavalry  commander,  to  drive  Early  off.  Sheri- 
dan had  twice  the  force  of  Early,  and  before  the  harvest 
season  was  over  had  cleared  the  Valley  of  Confederates.  He 
also  laid  waste  the  Valley.  Barns,  mills,  and  many  houses 
were  burned.  The  horses,  mules,  and  cattle  were  driven 
away.  Grant  and  Sheridan  meant  that  the  farmers  of  the 
Shenandoah  should  never  again  furnish  Lee  with  provisions. 
It  was  said  that  a  crow  flying  over  the  country  would  have 
to  carry  his  provisions  with  him. 

The  Taking  of  Atlanta. — While  Grant  hammered  away  at 
Lee's  lines  around  Richmond,  and  Sheridan  laid  the  beautiful 
Shenandoah  Valley  in  blackened  ruins,  Sherman  carried  out 
his  part  of  the  plan.  His  army  advanced  from  Chattanooga 
into  Georgia.  The  Confederates  destroyed  the  railroad  as 
they  retreated,  and  Sherman  rebuilt  it.  Upon  that  railroad 
he  depended  for  food  and  military  supplies,  sent  from  Louis- 
ville through  Nashville  and  Chattanooga.  As  Sherman  had 
100,000  men  and  35,000  horses,  he  calculated  that  to  dehver 
food  and  forage  regularly  would  have  required  36,800  wagons, 
each  drawn  by  six  mules.  The  telegraph  also  followed  his 
advance,  so  that  almost  every  day  he  was  able  to  send  word 
to  General  Grant  of  his  progress.  On  September  2  he  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  Atlanta,  which,  although  it  was  not  a 
large  city,  was  the  chief  manufacturing  town  for  military  sup- 
plies in  the  Confederacy. 

Farragut  at  Mobile.  —  While  Sherman  was  still  fighting 
about  Atlanta,  Farragut,  with  a  strong  fleet,  attacked  the 
defenses  of  Mobile,  Alabama,  one  of  the  few  Southern  ports 
which  still  remained  open.  His  ships  had  to  fight  not  only 
the  Confederate  forts,  but  also  an  iron-clad  ram,  the  Tennes- 
see, almost  as  powerful  as  the  Merrimac.  After  a  severe 
struggle  the  Tennessee  was  taken  and  the  forts  surrendered. 


RE-ELECTION   OF    LINCOLN  429 

From  Atlanta  to  the  Sea.  —  After  remaining  in  Atlanta 
several  weeks,  Sherman  obtained  Grant's  consent  to  a  bold 
plan  of  marching  across  Georgia  to  the  sea.  General  Thomas, 
with  a  part  of  the  army,  returned  to  Chattanooga  to  defend 
Tennessee,  for  a  Confederate  army  had  started  northward, 
hoping  to  draw  Sherman  after  it.  That  army  Thomas  de- 
stroyed near  Nashville  in  December. 

Before  Sherman  left  Atlanta,  storehouses,  mills,  machine 
shops — everything  which  contributed  supplies  to  the  Confed- 
erate armies  —  were  destroyed.  As  his  army  swept  across 
Georgia  it  left  a  track  of  desolation  nearly  60  miles  wide. 
The  Georgia  farmers  had  been  raising  corn  instead  of  cotton, 
and  they  furnished  a  large  part  of  the  food  for  Lee's  army  at 
Richmond.  Sherman,  like  Sheridan  in  the  Shenandoah,  left 
nothing  that  could  be  of  any  use  to  an  army.  Bridges  were 
burned,  railroads  were  torn  up,  and  the  rails  were  heated  and 
twisted. 

Sherman's  army  marched  twelve  or  fifteen  miles  a  day. 
There  was  no  army  to  oppose,  and  Sherman  captured  Sa- 
vannah in  time  to  offer  it  to  Lincoln  as  a  Christmas  gift. 

Reelection  of  Lincoln.  —  Before  the  campaigns  of  1864 
were  over  a  new  election  had  taken  place.  Many  Repubhcan 
pohticians,  unmindful  of  the  great  work  that  Lincoln  had 
done,  planned  to  set  him  aside  and  put  forward  some  one  else 
as  tlie  candidate  of  the  RepubHcan  party.  When  the  conven- 
tion met  they  discovered  that  the  people  believed  in  Lincoln. 
The  opposition  dwindled  into  nothing,  and  he  was  trium- 
phantly nominated.  The  Democrats  nominated  General 
McClellan,  declared  the  war  a  failure,  and  urged  the  sum- 
moning of  delegates  from  all  the  states  to  a  convention  which 
should  restore  peace.  The  news  of  the  capture  of  Atlanta, 
of  Farragut's  'capture  of  Mobile,  and  of  Sheridan's  victory 
over  Early  in  the  Shenandoah  put  new  Hfe  into  Lincoln's 
cause  and  he  was  reelected. 


430  CONQUERING   A   PEACE 

Drawing  the  Net  on  Lee.  —  Sherman's  march  from  Atlanta 
to  the  sea  destroyed  Lee's  last  important  source  of  supplies. 
The  end  of  the  war  was  near.  In  January,  1865,  Sherman's 
army  continued  its  journey.  This  time  it  marched  northward 
across  South  Carolina  and  North  Carolina.  Sherman  was 
slowly  drawing  the  net  closer  upon  Lee. 

Surrender  of  Lee,  April  9, 1865. —  Grant  had  not  ceased  his 
attacks  on  Lee  during  the  winter.  Food  and  ammunition 
were  slowly  giving  out  in  Richmond.  Lee's  army  was  finally 
reduced  to  parched  corn  for  food.  On  April  2  Lee  abandoned 
Richmond.  He  could  hold  it  against  Grant  no  longer.  One 
week  later  the  two  met  at  Appomattox  Court  House,  and 
arranged  terms  of  surrender.  Lee's  army  had  melted  away. 
Only  a  few  more  than  25,000  of  his  once  magnificent  force 
remained  to  lay  down  arms  on  April  9.  Grant's  terms  were 
generous,  as  Lincoln  wanted  them  to  be.  The  Confederate 
soldiers  were  to  retire  quietly  and  peaceably  to  their  homes. 
The  men  should  take  their  horses,  because,  said  Grant,  '^They 
will  need  them  for  the  spring  plowing  and  farm  work." 
General  Lee  in  a  simple  and  manly  manner  bade  his  men 
farewell.  ^'Men,"  he  said,  ^'we  have  fought  through  the  war 
together.  I  have  done  my  best  for  you.  My  heart  is  too 
full  to  say  more." 

Assassination  of  Lincoln,  April  14,  1865.  —  Friday,  April 
14,  was  a  day  of  happiness  in  the  North  and  of  mourning  in 
the  South.  The  day  was  the  fourth  anniversary  of  the  fall 
of  Fort  Sumter.  The  war  was  over.  The  South  had  failed 
to  establish  a  separate  repubHc.  The  United  States  was  re- 
united in  name,  at  least,  if  not  yet  in  heart.  The  President 
and  Mrs.  Lincoln  went  to  the  theater  with  a  small  party  of 
friends.  During  the  play,  a  half-crazed  actor,  Booth  by  name, 
shot  the  President.  In  the  morning  Lincoln  di6d.  The  coun- 
try's rejoicing  was  turned  to  the  deepest  mourning.  The 
death  of  the  generous  leader,  in  whose  heart  was  no  bitterness 


THE    COST   OF   THE    CIVIL   WAR 


431 


against  the  South,  was  the  greatest  disaster  of  the  Civil  War. 
The  divided  nation  needed  his  services  to  guide  it  through  the 
problems  of  reconstruction.  Once,  to  those  who  were  plan- 
ning revenge  and  persecution, 
Lincoln  had  gently  said,  **  Judge 
not  that  ye  be  not  judged." 

The  Cost  of  the  Civil  War. 
—  No  one  knows  what  the 
Civil  War  cost  the  American 
people.  Nearly  a  million  of 
the  strongest  men  in  the 
North  and  South  lost  their 
lives.  Hundreds  of  thousands 
of  men  labored  for  four  years, 
not  to  produce  things  which 
the  world  needed,  but  to 
kill  or  capture  one  another. 
Much  of  the  wealth  which  the 
Southern  people  had  accumu- 
lated was  swept  away,  and 
they  and  their  children  were 
obliged  to  start  anew  as  they 
had  in  colonial  days.  The 
American  people  are  still  paying  debts  which  the  war  caused. 
Billions  of  dollars  have  already  been  spent.  It  would  have 
been  far  cheaper  to  have  paid  the  owners  of  the  slaves  the 
whole  value  of  their  laborers,  twice  over. 

After  all,  it  was  not  a  matter  of  money.  The  Southerners 
beUeved  that  it  was  a  struggle  for  existence,  for  rights  inher- 
ited from  their  fathers,  especially  for  the  right  to  govern  them- 
selves. The  people  of  the  North  felt  that  saving  the  Union 
was  still  more  important.  They  came  to  look  upon  slavery 
as  the  great  stumbling-block  to  a  better  national  Kfe.  There 
seemed  to  be  no  court  of  final  appeal  except  war. 


Abraham  Lincoln 
After  the  statue  by  St.  Gaudens 


432  •      CONQUERING  A   PEACE 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  victories  did  the  United  States  win  around  Chattanooga?  Why 
were  these  as  important  as  the  capture  of  Vicksburg? 

2.  Whom  did  Lincoln  put  in  command  of  the  Union  army  in  1864?  What 
was  the  new  commander's  plan  for  1864?  Why  could  Grant  afford  to  fight 
when  he  lost  more  men  in  battle  than  Lee  ? 

3.  Why  did  Sheridan  devastate  the  Shenandoah  Valley  ?  What  was  Sher- 
man's part  in  the  campaign  of  1864  ?  Of  what  advantage  was  the  railroad  and 
telegraph  to  Sherman? 

4.  What  important  port  did  Farragut  capture  ?  Why  was  its  loss  a  great 
disaster  to  the  South  ? 

5.  What  was  the  object  of  Sherman's  march  from  Atlanta  to  the  Sea  ?  How 
did  he  then  proceed  to  draw  the  net  upon  Lee  ?  Why  did  Lee  finally  give 
up  ?     What  terms  did  he  obtain  from  Grant  ? 

6.  How  was  the  rejoicing  of  the  North  at  the  end  of  the  war  turned  into 
mourning  ? 

7.  What  did  the  Civil  War  cost  the  country? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Find  on  a  map  of  Eastern  Tennessee  the  places  mentioned  in  the  para- 
graph on  "Another  Gate  to  the  Cotton  States." 

2.  Locate  the  railroad  over  which  Sherman  obtained  his  supplies  in  the 
campaign  against  Atlanta. 

3.  Why  was  the  South  defeated  in  its  attempt  to  form  a  republic? 

Important  Dates: 

April  9,  1865.     The  surrender  of  Lee. 

April  14,  1865.    The  assassination  of  Lincoln. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 


PEACE  AND  ITS  PROBLEMS 


Return  of  the  Soldiers.  —  The  soldiers  of  the  Union  and 
Confederate  armies  were  sent  to  their  homes  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  Over  a  million  men  in  1865  gave  up  the  life  of 
camps,  marches,  and  battles,  and  began  to  work  on  farms  or 
plantations,  in  shops,  factories,  or  offices.  The  Southern 
soldier  made  his  way  home,  commonly  on  foot.  He  found  the 
farm  grown  up  to  weeds,  the  fences  down,  wagons  gone  or 
fallen  into  pieces.  Cities  like  Richmond  and  Atlanta  were 
in  ruins.  Business  was  at  a  standstill.  The  outlook  was 
discouraging. 

The  return  of  the  Northern  soldier  was  altogether  differ- 
ent. His  cause  was  successful.  His  states  had  seen  little  or 
nothing  of  hostile  armies.  Farms  had  been  extended,  new 
mills  had  been  built,  and  thousands  of  immigrants  had  helped 
to  keep  industry  active. 

Growth  of  the  North.  —  During  the  war  the  North  more 
than  made  up  for  the  loss  of  the  Southern  market  by  selling 
corn  and  wheat  in  England  and  in  Europe.  The  amount  of 
corn  exported  was  doubled  in  the  ten  years  from  i860  to 
1870,  while  the  amount  of  wheat  was  tripled.  The  place  of 
the  farmer's  sons  who  enhsted  in  the  army  was  taken  by 
machinery.  By  1865,  250,000  reapers  were  in  use,  each  of 
which  could  cut  nearly  an  acre  an  hour.  The  amount  of  work 
done  is  also  partly  explained  by  the  great  numbers  of  immi- 
grants. The  population  of  the  states  in  the  valley  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  was  half  again  as  large  in  1870  as  in  i860, 
in  spite  of  the  losses  by  war. 


434 


PEACE   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS 


The  increase  in  Northern  manufactures  during  this  period 
was  equally  rapid.  Their  value  grew  three  times  as  fast  as 
from  1850  to  i860.  New  mills  were  needed  to  make  guns, 
cannon,  armor,  and  other  military  supplies.  Great  quan- 
tities of  iron  ore  were  brought  from  Lake  Superior  to  Chicago, 
Cleveland,  Buffalo,  and  Pittsburgh.  Other  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing flourished.  One  who  watched  the  busy  life  of  a 
Northern  city  would  scarcely  have  imagined  that  a  terrible 
war  was  raging  three  or  four  hundred  miles  to  the  south. 


Scene  in  the  Oil  District  of  Pennsylvania  in  1868 


New  industries  were  also  begun.  A  little  while  before  the 
war  petroleum  was  found  in  several  regions  by  drilling  deep 
wells.  In  1862,  3,000,000  barrels  of  petroleum  were  taken 
from  wells,  chiefly  in  northwestern  Pennsylvania.  The 
crude  oil  was  sent  to  Cleveland,  Erie,  Pittsburgh,  and  other 
cities  and  refined,  making  kerosene,  gasoline,  naphtha,  and 
other  useful  products. 

Soon  after  the  war  Congress  carried  out  the  promise  made 
by  the  Republican  party  to  give  every  man  a  free  homestead 
of  160  acres  if  he  would  settle  upon  it.  The  government  offi- 
cials saw  that  the  pioneer  who  cleared  the  land  for  crops 
was  doing  a  work  no  less  important  than  that  of  those  who 


CONDITION   OF   THE  SOUTH 


435 


built  railroads.  Land  had  been  given  for  railroads;  after  1862 
it  was  given  freely  for  farms.  By  1880,  65,000,000  acres 
had  been  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  discovery  of  gold  in  Nevada  started  a  rush  of  settlers 
to  that  region  like  that  to  California  in  1849.  Nevada  grew 
so  rapidly  that  Congress  admitted  it  into  the  Union  in  1864. 
Settlements  were  also  begun  in  the  region  since  included  in 
Montana,  Idaho,  Colorado,  and  Arizona.^ 


The  Ruins  of  Charleston 
Condition  of  the  South.  —  In  the  South,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  people  felt  all  the  hardships  of  war.  Cotton,  the  princi- 
pal crop,  could  not  be  sold.  The  bales  were  used  for  breast- 
works or  lay  exposed  to  the  weather.  If  Union  armies 
passed  where  cotton  was  stored,  they  seized  it.     Many  of  the 

^  Shortly  before  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War  a  line  of  overland  coaches 
began  carrying  the  mail  and  passengers  regularly  from  the  Missouri  River 
to  New  INIexico,  California,  and  Oregon,  following  the  trails  of  the  prairie 
schooners.  Short  lines  were  started  to  the  chief  mining  camps  of  Nevada, 
Idaho,  Montana,  and  Colorado.  It  required  22  or  23  days  and  nights  of  con- 
tinuous traveling  to  reach  California.  The  heavy  four-mule  stage-coaches  were 
dragged  at  a  galloping  pace  over  desert  and  mountain  roads.  It  was  anything 
but  a  comfortable  journey,  sleeping  in  the  seats,  halting  ten  minutes  for  meals, 
and  watching  at  all  times  for  attacks  from  hostile  Indians.  The  "Pony  Ex- 
press," a  line  of  fleet  horsemen,  carried  the  more  important  mail  over  the  same 
route  in  about  eight  days.  In  1861  a  telegraph  line  joined  the  East  and 
the  West  in  easy  communication,  and  soon  displaced  the  "Pony  Express." 


436  PEACE    AND    ITS    PROBLEMS 

farmers  gave  up  raising  cotton  and  raised  corn  to  feed  the 
Confederate  armies.  They  were  paid  in  Confederate  paper 
money,  which  sank  lower  and  lower  in  value.  Mrs.  Davis 
kept  a  diary  in  Richmond,  and  in  1864  she  wrote  that  a  turkey 
cost  her  $60,  a  pair  of  shoes  $150,  and  a  barrel  of  flour  $300. 
In  1865  this  money  was  worthless  paper. 

During  the  war  most  of  the  able-bodied  men  were  in  the 
army.  At  least  a  third  of  them  were  killed  or  crippled.  In 
their  absence  the  work  was  done  by  the  old  men,  women, 
children,  and  slaves.  They  also  had  to  learn  to  make  articles 
which  they  could  no  longer  obtain  by  trade  with  the  North  or 
with  England. 

People  who  lived  in  the  South  at  that  time  tell  how  they 
parched  rye  and  dried  blackberry  leaves  to  take  the  place  of 
coffee  and  tea.  The  women  drew  out  the  spinning  wheels 
and  hand-looms  and  made  clothing.  They  found  herbs 
and  roots  to  furnish  dye  stuffs.  The  old  men  and  the  more 
skilful  slaves  learned  to  make  shoes  and  ordinary  tools.  In 
ways  of  living  they  went  back  to  the  old  colonial  times. 

The  South's  Hardest  Question.  —  When  peace  came  the 
Southerners  were  obliged  to  rebuild  what  had  been  torn  down 
or  burned  during  the  war.  But  this  was  not  their  greatest 
difficulty.  They  had  to  find  laborers.  The  negroes  were  still 
among  them,  but  no  longer  as  slaves.  The  rich  planter  who 
once  owned  a  thousand  slaves  could  not  order  the  negroes 
to  work  for  him  any  more  than  could  his  neighbor  who  had 
never  owned  one. 

Another  difficulty  nearly  as  great  was,  How  should  the  states 
which  had  declared  their  independence,  or,  in  other  words, 
had  seceded,  be  treated  after  the  Confederate  armies  had 
surrendered?  Both  matters  should  have  been  settled  by 
the  wisest  men  of  North  and  South,  men  like  Lincoln,  with 
mahce  toward  none.  He,  better  than  other  Northern  leaders, 
understood  the  South  and  the  problem  of  peace.     He  was 


THE    FREEDMEN 


437 


ready  to  answer  ^11  questions  in  the  spirit  of  fairness  and 
charity. 

A  New  Leader.  —  The  death  of  President  Lincoln  raised 
the  Vice-President,  Andrew  Johnson,  to  the  Presidency  at 
one  of  the  most  difficult  times  in  the  history  of  the  United 
States.  Johnson  had  been  a  poor  boy.  He  had  scarcely 
any  education,  but  he  had 
energy  and  ability,  and  soon 
became  a  leader  in  Tennessee. 
The  politicians  chose  him  as 
Vice-President  in  1864,  because 
he  could  win  a  few  Southern 
votes  for  the  party.  None  of 
them  expected  that  he  would 
become  President.  He  was 
rugged,  narrow-minded,  and 
quarrelsome. 

The  leaders  of  the  Union 
party  in  Congress  were  little, 
if  any,  better  fitted  than 
Johnson  for  the  new  tasks.  Thaddeus  Stevens  in  the 
House  and  Charles  Sumner  in  the  Senate  believed  that 
the  Southern  people  intended  to  rebel  again  or  restore 
slavery. 

The  Freedmen.  —  The  negroes  had  not  learned  the  mean- 
:ing  of  freedom,  when  it  was  suddenly  given  to  them.  The 
story  is  told  that  William  Lloyd  Garrison  visited  a  camp  of 
freedmen  near  Charleston.  "Well,  my  friends,"  he  said, 
^'you  are  free  at  last;  let  us  give  three  cheers  for  freedom!" 
When  he  tried  to  lead  the  cheering  the  negroes  stood  in 
dead  silence.  To  some  freedom  meant  the  right  to  be  idle  the 
rest  of  their  lives.  A  great  many  thought  that  it  meant  a 
division  of  the  old  plantations  among  them.  They  frequently 
asked,    "When  is  the  land   to  be   divided?"     They    heard 


Andrew  Johnson 


438  PEACE   AND    ITS   PROBLEMS 

rumors  that  the  government  would  soon  give  each  one  forty 
acres  of  land  and  a  mule. 

•  Those  who  crowded  to  the  towns  and  camps  that  were 
established  by  the  army,  or  who  roved  about  the  country, 
suffered  terribly  from  poverty  and  disease.  The  consequence 
was  that  as  many  negroes  died  within  two  years  after  their 
emancipation  as  there  were  Northern  soldiers  who  lost  their 
lives  in  the  whole  Civil  War. 

Frederick  Douglas,  one  of  their  own  race  who  had  escaped 
from  slavery  and  educated  himself,  said  of  the  freedman  in 
1865,  ''He  was  free  from  the  old  plantation,  but  he  had 
nothing  but  the  dusty  road  under  his  feet.  He  was  free  from 
the  old  quarter  that  once  gave  him  shelter,  but  a  slave  to  the 
rains  of  summer  and  to  the  frosts  of  winter.  He  .  .  .  was 
turned  loose,  naked,  hungry,  and  destitute  to  the  open  sky." 
There  were  4,000,000  of  these  people  in  1865,  more  than 
whites  and  blacks  together  in  the  entire  nation  in  1783. 

In  his  Emancipation  Proclamation  President  Lincoln  had 
freed  only  the  slaves  living  in  the  states  under  the  control  of 
the  Confederacy.  Maryland  and  Missouri  voluntarily  freed 
their  slaves  in  1864  and  1865.  By  the  end  of  1865  slavery 
remained  lawful  only  in  Kentucky  and  Delaware,  and  even 
here  it  had  nearly  disappeared.  Finally,  in  December,  1865, 
an  amendment  was  added  to  the  national  Constitution  for- 
ever forbidding  slavery  anywhere  in  the  United  States.^ 

The  Freedmen's  Bureau. — The  leaders  in  Congress  did  not 
believe  that  the  Southerners  would  treat  their  former  slaves 
fairly,  and  established  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  to  watch  over 
the  negroes,  distribute  relief,  and  establish  schools.  The 
purpose  of  the  Bureau  was  excellent,  but  many  of  its  agents 
taught  the  negroes  that  the  Southerners  meant  to  oppress 
them.     The  result  was  that  the  two  races,  which  needed  to 

1  Three  years  later  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  gave  the  freedmen  all  rights 
of  citizenship  except  that  of  voting. 


THE   PLANTATION    SYSTEM   ENDED  439 

be  friendly,  were  driven  farther  apart.  Besides,  the  fact  that 
the  government  distributed  supplies  convinced  the  freedmen 
that  they  were  not  obliged  to  work,  and  led  multitudes  to 
leave  the  plantations  in  the  midst  of  the  summer  of  1865, 
making  the  situation  worse. 

The  Plantation  System  breaks  down.  —  The  planters, 
without  either  slaves  or  free  laborers  on  whom  to  depend, 
and  without  money  to  hire  them,  were  '4and-poor"  after  the 
Civil  War.  Some  sold  the  plantations  for  what  they  could 
get,  a  fourth  or  a  tenth  of  the  former  value,  and  made  a 
living  in  some  other  manner.  Whether  the  planters  sold 
the  plantations  or  not,  the  land  was  divided  into  small 
farms,  and  rented  on  shares  to  white  tenants  or  negroes. 

The  poorer  farmers  had  a  better  chance  to  make  a  living 
after  the  plantations  were  broken  up.  They  did  not  suffer 
from  competition  with  planters  owning  vast  amounts  of  rich 
land  and  controlling  large  gangs  of  slaves.  Better  methods  of 
cultivation  were  introduced,  so  that  by  1870  they  were  raising 
50  pounds,  more  of  cotton  on  an  acre  than  the  planters  had 
raised  under  slavery.  The  building  of  new  railroads  helped 
them  to  market  their  crops,  as  the  railroads  had  helped  the 
small  farmers  in  the  Northwest. 

Reorganizing  the  Southern  State  Governments.  —  As  the 
Civil  War  drew  to  a  close,  President  Lincoln  prepared  to  make 
the  way  easy  for  the  reorganization  of  the  seceded  states  and 
for  their  re-admission  to  the  Union.  ''Forgive  and  forget" 
was  his  rule  in  such  matters.  President  Johnson  adopted 
Lincoln's  plan  and  took  steps  in  the  summer  of  1865  to  reor- 
ganize the  governments  of  the  Southern  states  and  to  hold 
elections  for  Congress  almost  as  if  there  had  been  no  war. 

Johnson  blundered  in  dealing  with  Congress  and  in  trying 
to  induce  it  to  carry  out  his  plan.  Men  like  Stevens  and 
Sumner  distrusted  the  leaders  in  the  Confederacy  and  wished 
to  keep  them  from  gaining  control  of  their  governments.     On 


440  PEACE   AND    ITS    PROBLEMS 

the  other  hand,  the  Southern  people  made  some  mistakes. 
The  leaders  were  defiant  toward  the  North.  They  advocated 
harsh  and  unfair  laws  in  order  to  make  the  negroes  work. 
Their  mistakes  and  the  blunders  of  Johnson  combined  to  drive 
the  moderate  men  in  Congress  over  to  the  side  of  Stevens 
and  Sumner.  Congress,  instead  of  following  Lincoln's  plan 
of  generosity  and  charity  toward  the  Confederate  States, 
adopted  Stevens's  plan  in  which  vengeance  and  distrust  were 
the  main  motives. 

Stevens^s  Vengeance  and  Sumner's  IdeaL  —  In  1867  ten 
Southern  states  were  divided  into  five  military  districts. 
Tennessee  escaped,  because  it  had  already  made  terms  with 
Congress  and  had  been  re-admitted  into  the  Union.  Army 
officers  ruled  the  districts  as  though  the  war  was  still  going 
on.  Many  of  the  Southern  leaders  were  deprived  of  their 
right  to  vote  in  the  elections,  while  their  former  slaves  were 
given  the  privilege.  Finally,  when  the  states  had  forbidden 
slavery,  had  ratified  the  Fourteenth  Amendment,  and  had 
adopted  negro  suffrage,  they  were  allowed  to  reenter  the 
Union.  From  1867  to  1870  the  states  fulfilled  the  hard  con- 
ditions. This  satisfied  Thaddeus  Stevens,  who  detested  the 
Southern  whites,  and  Charles  Sumner,  who  wished  to  give  the 
negroes  the  privilege  of  voting. 

Congress  and  the  President.  —  President  Johnson  opposed 
the  Congressional  treatment  of  the  South.  He  vetoed  every 
important  measure  which  Congress  passed,  and  denounced 
its  leaders  in  words  more  vigorous  than  poHte.  Congress 
then  passed  each  measure  over  his  veto.  Feeling  became  so 
bitter  that  Congress  turned  from  its  work  of  keeping  the 
South  dependent  upon  the  North  to  make  sure  that  the 
President  was  dependent  on  Congress.  In  1868  some  of  his 
more  violent  enemies  accused  him  before  the  Senate  of  ''high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors.''  Had  he  been  convicted,  he  would 
have  been  removed  from  the  Presidency.     It  was  fortunately 


RECONSTRUCTION   IN   THE    SOUTH  441 

impossible  to  obtain  the  necessary  two-thirds  vote  for  con- 
viction. Before  Johnson's  term  expired,  in  1869,  Congress 
proposed  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
adopted  a  year  later,  giving  the  negroes  the  same  privileges 
in  voting  which  the  white  people  had.  Up  to  that  time  only 
six  Northern  states  had  allowed  the  negroes  to  vote. 

Slaves  become  Rulers.  —  In  South  Carolina,  Florida, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  the  new  voters  out- 
numbered the  white  voters.  In  Georgia  the  two  were  about 
equal.  For  several  years  the  cotton  states  were  ruled  by  the 
former  slaves. 

"  Carpet-Baggers."  —  Many  Northern  men  were  attracted 
to  the  South  after  the  Civil  War  by  the  cheapness  of  the  land 
or  by  the  chance  of  being  chosen  to  office  by  the  votes  of  the 
freedmen.  The  Southern  people  called  them  "  carpet-baggers  " 
because  they  arrived  with  little  more  than  a  carpet-bag  or 
satchel,  in  which  their  belongings  were  packed.  They  were 
men  of  all  kinds,  some  honest,  others  dishonest,  some  noble- 
minded,  others  rascals.  The  carpet-baggers  and  the  negroes 
held  the  offices  and  governed  the  states  as  completely  as  if 
the  former  rulers  of  the  South  had  vanished.^ 

Carpet-Bag  Government.  —  The  new  rulers  knew  almost 
nothing  about  governing  a  country,  and  least  of  all  one  in  the 
ruined  condition  of  the  South  after  the  war.  The  members 
of  the  legislatures  voted  themselves  large  salaries.  They 
ordered  at  public  expense  fine  clothes,  laces,  perfumes,  expen- 
sive wines  and  cigars,  jewelry  and  furniture,  horses  and  car- 
riages. As  one  said,  they  believed  that  the  state  should  take 
care  of  its  statesmen.  There  were  even  worse  things  than 
extravagance  and  misuse  of  state  money.  Men  bought 
justice    and    favors    like    merchandise.     The    debts    of    the 

1  A  few  Southern  white  men  joined  with  the  negroes  and  carpet-baggers. 
Such  were  held  in  great  contempt  by  their  white  neighbors,  and  were  called 
"  scalawags." 


442 


PEACE  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS 


states  were  increased  four,  five,  six,  or  seven-fold,  under  such 
ignorant  and  corrupt  rulers. 

Ku  Klux  Klan.  —  As  the  United  States  troops  kept  the 
Southern  people  from  openly  resisting  their  *'  carpet-bag  " 
government,  the  Southern  people  formed  secret  societies, 
named  the  Ku  Klux  Klan,  Pale  Faces,  White  Brotherhood, 
and  the  like.  Whatever  the  name,  the  objects  were  the 
same :  to  keep  lawless  negroes  from  stealing  and  other  crimes, 

to  frighten  them  from  voting 
and  holding  offices,  and  to 
drive  carpet-baggers  out  of  the 
country.  Some  of  the  disguises 
which  the  members  of  these 
societies  wore  were  terrifying. 
Their  faces  were  masked,  and 
they  were  shrouded  in  white. 
Even  their  horses  were  covered 
with  long  white  gowns.  The 
members  rode  around  the  negro 
cabins  in  the  dead  of  night. 
Lawless  men  frequently  made 
use  of  the  same  disguise  to  commit  robbery  and  murder. 
In  the  North  it  was  generally  believed  that  all  these  secret 
societies  of  the  South  were  organized  to  terrify,  rob,  and 
murder  the  negroes. 

Southerners  again  rule  the  South.  —  The  rule  of  the 
carpet-baggers  lasted  in  some  parts  of  the  South  until  1877. 
As  long  as  Federal  soldiers  were  kept  in  the  Southern  states 
the  carpet-baggers  remained  in  control.  They  had  persuaded 
the  freedmen  that  the  Republican  party  had  freed  them, 
and  that  the  Democratic  party  wished  to  place  them  back  in 
slavery.  Most  of  the  negroes,  therefore,  voted  the  Republican 
ticket.  General  Grant,  who  was  President  from  1869  to  1877, 
thought  that  the  soldiers  should  not  be  withdrawn.     But 


Rutherford  B.  Hayes 


THE   END   OF  AN  ERA 


443 


Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  who  was  chosen  President  in  the 
election  of  1876  withdrew  the  army  as  soon  as  he  was  in- 
augurated.^ The  Southern  people  quickly  drove  the  remaining 
carpet-baggers  from  power  and  took  complete  control  them- 
selves. From  that  time  the  votes  of  the  freedmen,  if  they 
took  the  trouble  to  vote,  have  had  little  influence  upon  the 
government  of  the  Southern  states. 

The  End  of  an  Era.  —  By  1876  the  work  of  restoring  the 
Southern  states  to  their  full  rights  in  the  Union  was  almost 


Main  Building  at  Philadelphia  Exposition,  1876 


completed.  It  was  also  just  a  hundred  years  since  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence.  The  year  was  therefore  chosen 
as  a  good  time  to  review  what  the  country  had  learned  how 
to  do.  A  great  fair,  called  the  Centennial  Exposition,  was 
held  in  Philadelphia.  Nearly  every  state  took  some  part 
in  it.  The  South  showed  the  progress  that  it  was  making 
with  free  labor.  The  farms,  mining  towns,  and  ranches  of  the 
West  displayed  their  work.  Manufacturers  vied  with  one 
another  in  showing  their  wares  and  explaining  the  methods 

^  The  results  of  the  election  were  very  close.  In  three  Southern  states 
both  parties  claimed  the  victory.  As  the  election  turned  on  these  contested 
votes,  Congress  referred  the  matter  to  a  commission  of  15,  which  gave  the 
votes  of  these  states  to  Hayes.  The  Democratic  candidate  was  Samuel  J. 
Tilden  of  New  York. 


444  PEACE   AND    ITS    PROBLEMS 

of  making  them.  New  inventions  were  exhibited,  such  as 
the  airbrake,  the  typewriter,  and  the  telephone. 

Foreign  nations  also  took  part  in  the  Exposition.  The 
products  of  the  skilled  workers  of  almost  all  countries  were 
placed  beside  the  wares  of  American  workmen.  They  in- 
cluded woolens,  china,  steel  from  England  and  Germany,  laces 
and  silks  from  France,  rugs  and  tapestries  from  Turkey  and 
Persia,  carvings  in  wood  and  ivory  from  India,  China,  and 
Japan.  The  art  exhibits  of  Europe  aroused  new  interest  in 
art  among  Americans.  The  school  methods  of  the  old  world, 
especially  the  work  in  the  kindergarten  and  in  manual  train- 
ing, taught  American  schoolmen  to  improve  their  own  system 
of  education. 

All  the  displays  of  the  Exposition  were  housed  in  great 
buildings  constructed  for  them.  Millions  of  people,  many  of 
whom  had  never  traveled,  visited  the  Exposition  and  saw 
the  work  of  the  whole  world  spread  out  before  them.  They 
gained  a  better  idea  not  only  of  what  had  been  accomplished, 
but  also  of  the  improvements  still  to  be  made.  So  the 
Centennial  Exposition  marked  the  end  of  one  era  and  the 
beginning  of  another. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  conditions  did  the  Southern  soldiers  find  on  returning  home? 
The  Northern  soldiers?  In  what  ways  had  the  North  grown  during  the  Civil 
War?  What  markets  had  the  Northern  farmers  found  to  take  the  place  of  the 
Southern  markets?  What  new  industry  sprang  up  in  the  North  during  the 
war? 

2.  What  new  method  of  using  public  lands  did  Congress  adopt  in  1862? 
What  besides  free  lands  induced  men  to  go  West  during  the  Civil  War? 

3.  Describe  the  conditions  at  the  South  during  the  war.  In  what  ways 
did  the  South  go  backward? 

4.  What  hard  questions  did  the  country  have  to  meet  at  the  close  of  the 
war?    Why  was  Lincoln's  death  a  great  misfortune  to  the  South? 

5.  Were  the  freedmen  prepared  to  use  their  freedom  wisely?  How 
did  they  come  to  suffer  greatly?  What  was  the  object  of  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau?     What  was  the  result? 


QUESTIONS    AND    EXERCISES  445 

6.  What  became  of  the  plantation  system?  Who  profited  most  from  the 
change? 

7.  What  influenced  Sumner  and  Stevens  in  reorganizing  the  Southern 
states  after  the  Civil  War?  What  did  the  states  do  which  aroused  the 
Northern  leaders? 

8.  What  terms  of  admission  into  the  Union  did  Congress  require  of  the 
former  Confederate  states?  Why  did  President  Johnson  and  Congress 
quarrel?     What  did  the  House  of  Representatives  try  to  do  with  him? 

9.  What  privilege  did  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  give  the  negroes?  Who 
were  the  carpet-baggers?  How  did  the  new  rulers  of  the  South  manage  the 
government  of  the  states? 

10.  What  was  the  Ku  Klux  Klan?  How  long  did  the  rule  of  the  carpet- 
baggers and  freedmen  last?  What  effect  had  President  Hayes's  removal  of 
the  army? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Wherever  possible,  learn  from  a  soldier  of  the  Civil  War  what  changes 
he  found  on  returning  home  after  the  war. 

2.  In  what  ways  did  the  Centennial  Exposition  benefit  the  United  States? 

Important  Dates: 

1862.   Congress  begins  the  policy  of  giving  free  homesteads  to  pioneers  in 

the  West. 
1867.   Congress  fixes  the  terms  of  re-admission  of  Southern  states  into 

the  Union. 
1876.   The  Centennial  Exposition  is  held  in  Philadelphia. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 


NEIGHBORS   AND    RIVALS 


"Alabama"  Claims.  —  The  war  had  left  other  unsettled 
questions.  The  most  important  grew  out  of  the  fact  that  the 
British  government  had  permitted  ships  to  be  built  in  British 
shipyards  and  sold  to  the  Confederates.  The  damage  done 
by  these  ships,  especially  by  the  Alabama,  amounted  to 
millions  of  dollars.  The  dispute  might  easily  have  led  to  war, 
because  there  were  many  Englishmen  who  wished  to  fight 
rather  than  acknowledge  that  they  were  wrong.  There  were 
Americans,  too,  like  Charles  Sumner,  possessed  by  the  wild 
idea  that  England  might  be  compelled  to  pay  $200,000,000 
and  give  up  Canada,  on  the  ground  that  her  sympathy  for 
the  South  had  prolonged  the  war  and  had  caused  the  United 
States  great  loss  and  suffering.  Fortunately,  both  countries 
had  statesmen  with  common  sense  and  common  honesty. 
The  Enghsh  Prime  Minister,  William  E.  Gladstone,  and  the 
American  Secretary  of  State,  Hamilton  Fish,  agreed  to  leave 
the  settlement  of  the  dispute  to  five  arbitrators.  England 
and  the  United  States  each  chose  one,  and  Brazil,  Italy, 
and  Switzerland  also  chose  one  each.  In  1872  they  decided 
that  England  had  injured  the  United  States  to  the  amount 
of  $15,500,000  through  the  destruction  of  ships.  The  deci- 
sion was  unpopular  in  England,  but  the  Enghsh  government 
paid  the  money  promptly.  The  way  in  which  the  dispute 
was  ended  set  a  noble  example  to  the  world  of  a  method 
better  than  war  for  settling  such  questions. 

Question  of  Mexico.  —  The  United  States  had  a  question 
to  settle  with  France,  the  ruler  of  which  was  Napoleon  III, 


THE    PURCHASE    OF   ALASKA  447 

a  nephew  of  the  great  Napoleon.  Europeans  had  many 
claims  against  the  Mexican  government,  some  of  them  hke 
those  which  Americans  had  had  before  their  war  with  Mexico. 
England  and  Spain  decided  in  1861  to  join  France  in  forcing 
the  Mexicans  to  pay.  Soon,  however,  England  and  Spain 
discovered  that  the  Emperor  Napoleon  had  other  plans  in 
mind  and  they  refused  to  have  anything  further  to  do  with  the 
enterprise.  The  fact  was  that  Napoleon  meant  to  set  up  an 
empire  in  Mexico  strong  enough  to  check  the  spread  of  Eng- 
lish-speaking peoples  in  North  America.  He  also  thought 
that  a  canal  should  be  dug  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
making  a  waterway  as  important  as  the  Bosphorus,  which 
flows  between  Europe  and  Asia. 

Napoleon  chose  a  time  for  carrying  out  his  dreams  when 
the  United  States  was  too  busy  with  the  Civil  War  to  inter- 
fere. He  sent  thousands  of  soldiers  to  Mexico  and  spent  mil- 
lions of  money.  In  1864  he  set  up  Maximilian,  brother  of  the 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph  of  Austria,  as  Emperor  of  Mexico. 
The  United  States  had  protested  against  his  conduct,  but  in 
vain.  When  the  Civil  War  closed  and  the  United  States  had 
several  hundred  thousand  veteran  soldiers  under  arms  and 
ready  for  action,  the  Emperor  Napoleon  wisely  Hstened  to 
the  protests  and  withdrew  his  troops,  leaving  the  unfortunate 
Maximilian  to  his  fate.  Two  years  later  MaximiHan  was 
captured  by  the  Mexican  republicans  and  shot,  on  the  ground 
that  he  had  ordered  repubHcan  prisoners  shot  as  rebels.  The 
action  of  the  United  States  showed  that  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine had  not  been  forgotten. 

Purchase  of  Alaska.  —  In  1862,  the  year  President  Lincoln 
planned  to  emancipate  the  slaves,  Alexander  II,  Czar  of  Russia, 
proclaimed  that  the  Russian  peasants  should  be  freed.  They 
were  not  slaves  like  the  southern  negroes,  but  their  labor 
was  owned  by  the  nobles  who  possessed  the  lands  on 
which   they  lived.     They  were   serfs,  like   the  Enghsh   and 


448  NEIGHBORS   AND   RIVALS 

French  peasants  in  the  Middle  Ages.  By  this  act  of  1862 
Alexander  also  won  the  name  of  "Emancipator."  It  was 
natural  that  he  should  sympathize  with  the  United  States 
during  the  Civil  War.  The  North  felt  grateful  for  this  Rus- 
sian sympathy,  especially  as  there  was  danger  of  war  with 
England  and  France. 

After  the  Civil  War  was  over  the  Russian  government 
unexpectedly  offered  to  sell  Alaska.  Secretary  Seward,  a 
member  of  Lincoln's  cabinet  who  had  been  retained  by  Presi- 
dent Johnson,  received  the  proposal  and  arranged  a  treaty 
of  purchase.  Americans  at  that  time  supposed  that  Alaska 
was  a  frozen  region,  its  inhabitants  Esquimaux,  and  ''its 
chief  products  polar  bears  and  glaciers."  Congress  was  in 
the  midst  of  its  quarrel  with  Johnson  and  unwilling  to 
carry  out  any  plan  proposed  by  his  administration.  Sumner 
believed  that  Seward's  bargain  was  a  good  one  and  his  influ- 
ence in  the  Senate  was  strong.  Besides,  many  Congressmen 
remembered  Russia's  friendship  and  wished  to  show  proper 
appreciation.  The  treaty  was  therefore  accepted  in  April, 
1867.  The  new  territory  was  twice  as  large  as  Texas,  and 
as  large  as  the  original  thirteen  states  together.  The  cost 
was  $7,200,000,  which  the  natural  wealth  of  Alaska,  un- 
known at  that  time,  has  many  times  repaid,  though  its 
resources  in  gold,  coal,  fish,  and  agricultural  products  have 
barely  been  touched. 

A  United  Canada.  —  The  talk  about  the  seizure  or  conquest 
of  Canada,  which  was  common  in  the  United  States  after 
the  Civil  War,  alarmed  the  Canadians  and  they  resolved  to 
strengthen  themselves  by  union.  In  1867  there  were  six  Brit- 
ish colonies  in  North  America:  Canada,  divided  into  two 
provinces,  —  Quebec  and  Ontario, — Nova  Scotia,  New  Bruns- 
wick, Prince  Edward  Island,  Newfoundland,  and,  far  away 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  British  Columbia.  Between  the  East 
and  the  West  were  three   great  natural  basins,  the  Hudson 


UNITED    CANADA 


449 


The  United  States,  Canada,  and  Mexico 
Alaska  and  its  islands,    if  laid  down  on  the  United  States,  would  touch  the  Alantic 
Ocean  on  the  southeast,  Canada  on  the  north,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west 

Bay  country,  the  Winnipeg  region,  and  the  Mackenzie  River 
Valley,  all  unsettled.  A  great  convention  of  delegates  met 
in  Quebec  and  drew  up  a  plan  of  union.  The  meeting  re- 
calls to  mind  the  Federal  Convention  at  Philadelphia  in  1787. 
In  1867  the  new  union  was  put  into  effect  under  the  name, 
Dominion  of  Canada.     This  was  like  the  EngHsh  system  of 


450  NEIGHBORS   AND    RIVALS 

government,  although  in  some  ways  it  resembled  that  of  the 
United  States.  The  Dominion  had  a  parHament  instead  of  a 
congress,  and  instead  of  a  president  a  prime  minister  who 
must  be  satisfactory  to  the  majority  in  parliament. 

Only  four  of  the  provinces  united  in  1867.  Four  years 
later  British  Columbia,  and  shortly  afterward  Prince  Edward 
Island,  w6re  admitted,  much  as  the  United  States  permits 
new  states  to  enter  the  Union.  Newfoundland,  alone  of  the 
old  colonies,  remained  outside  of  Canada.  The  government 
of  Canada  had  a  vast  western  territory  out  of  which  to  make 
other  states  in  later  years.  The  growth  of  the  Canadian  North- 
west is  a  part  of  the  westward  movement  in  American  history. 

A  Greater  Britain.  —  The  constitution  which  the  Cana- 
dians drew  up  was  agreed  to  by  the  British  parliament.  A 
governor-general  was  sent  to  represent  Great  Britain  in  Can- 
ada, but  he  was  not  to  interfere  with  the  right  of  the  Cana- 
dians to  govern  themselves.  They  paid  no  taxes  to  the  mother 
country  and  even  charged  import  duties  upon  British  products 
brought  into  the  Dominion.  All  this  was  very  different  from 
the  bitter  dispute  a  century  before  between  the  British  parlia- 
ment and  the  colonies  on  the  Atlantic  shore.  A  new  idea 
had  taken  possession  of  the  leaders  of  Great  Britain.  They 
now  thought  that  the  Englishman  who  chose  to  live  beyond 
the  seas  in  Canada,  South  Africa,  Australia,  or  any  other 
country,  should  enjoy  the  same  rights  he  would  have  at 
home.  The  expenses  of  the  Empire,  which  troubled  the 
men  of  1765  so  much,  were  paid  from  taxes  collected  in 
Great  Britain,  unless   the  colonies  offered  to  bear  a  share. 

The  change  in  views  of  the  English  leaders  was  mainly  due 
to  the  adoption  by  parliament  of  new  ''reform"  bills.  These 
extended  the  reforms  in  government  begun  by  the  "Great 
Reform"  bill  of  1832,  until  almost  every  man  in  the  land  pos- 
sessed the  right  to  vote.  Representation  in  parliament  was 
also  more  fairly  distributed.     The  government  remained  a 


K,  D,  bervosa,  Eng'r,  M.  X, 


AFFAIRS    IN   EUROPE  451 

monarchy,  that  is,  a  king  or  queen  reigned,  but  it  really 
became  a  democracy  or  government  by  the  people.  The 
representatives  of  the  people  in  parliament  improved  many 
of  the  old  laws:  protecting  the  workmen  in  the  factories 
against  accident,  shortening  the  hours  of  labor,  especially  of 
women  and  children,  and  making  it  easier  to  purchase  farms. 
In  such  ways  the  British  government  was  becoming  wiser 
and  more  just,  while  its  empire  was  becoming  greater  in  extent. 

Civil  War  in  Germany.  —  While  the  United  States  was 
torn  by  a  terrible  struggle  between  the  North  and  the  South, 
a  civil  war  of  another  kind  raged  in  Germany.  The  states 
into  which  the  Germans  were  grouped  were  almost  as 
independent  as  if  they  had  been  separate  countries.  The 
principal  ones  were  Prussia,  Bavaria,  and  Austria.  Alto- 
gether there  were  38  states,  11  of  them  large.  Their  union 
was  called  a  confederation.  Their  wars  with  one  another 
were  caused  by  attempts  of  the  two  greatest  states,  Prussia 
and  Austria,  to  strengthen  the  confederation  and  take  the 
lead  in  its  affairs.  One  short  war  occurred  in  1864  and  another 
in  1866.  In  the  second  war  Prussia  fought  against  Austria 
and  nearly  all  the  other  states  and  was  victorious.  The 
consequence  was  the  formation  of  a  North  German  Confed- 
eration and  the  exclusion  of  Austria  from  Germany.  Four 
years  later,  during  a  war  of  Germany,  led  by  Prussia,  against 
France,  the  South  German  states  entered  the  confederation, 
which  was  changed  into  the  German  Empire  with  the  King 
of  Prussia  as  emperor.  Germany,  from  being  a  loose  confed- 
eration, had  now  become  one  of  the  strongest  nations  of  the 
world. 

France  a  Republic.  —  The  Emperor  Napoleon  III,  who  had 
tried  to  overthrow  the  republic  of  Mexico,  was  himself  over- 
thrown in  1870,  and  a  repubHc  founded  in  France.  He  had 
been  led  foolishly  into  a  war  with  Germany,  had  been  badly 
defeated,  and  taken  prisoner.     Many  Frenchmen  wished  to 


452  NEIGHBORS   AND    RIVALS 

recall  to  the  throne  a  descendant  of  their  ancient  kings,  but  a 
majority  of  the  people  were  in  favor  of  ruling  themselves 
with  a  president  as  their  chief  magistrate.  The  constitution 
which  they  adopted  was  more  nearly  like  that  of  England  than 
that  of  the  United  States,  for  they  have  a  prime  minister, 
whose  power  is  greater  than  that  of  the  president. 

United  Italy.  —  The  same  years  saw  a  union  of  all  the 
ItaHan  states  under  Victor  Emmanuel  as  king.  Until  1859 
Italy,  like  Germany,  had  been  divided  into  several  kingdoms 
or  principalities.  The  northeastern  part  of  the  country, 
including  the  beautiful  city  of  Venice,  was  ruled  by  the 
Emperor  of  Austria.  For  more  than  half  a  century  the 
ItaHans  had  been  dreaming  of  an  Italy  which  should  be 
united  and  should  manage  its  own  affairs.  The  dream, 
like  so  many  others,  could  be  realized  only  after  many  battles, 
but  187 1,  which  saw  a  united  German  Empire,  also  saw  a 
united  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Austria-Hungary.  —  Austria,  which  was  driven  out  of  Italy 
and  Germany,  learned  lessons  from  defeat  and,  prepared  to 
live  on  better  terms  with  Hungary,  united  with  it  under  the 
rule  of  Francis  Joseph.  For  many  years  the  Empire  of  Aus- 
tria had  tried  to  manage  the  Kingdom  of  Hungary.  Now  the 
leaders  of  both  nations  made  an  ingenious  arrangement  by 
which  they  might  be  united  toward  all  the  world  but  inde- 
pendent toward  each  other. 

Triumph  of  Union.  —  The  history  of  Germany,  Italy, 
Austria-Hungary,  as  well  as  of  the  United  States,  shows  that 
union  was  an  idea  which  influenced  men  deeply.  Great 
united  nations  meant  keener  rivalries  in  the  future.  The 
success  of  the  United  States  in  the  Civil  War  in  preserving 
the  Union  increased  the  respect  of  the  Old  World  for  the 
RepubHc.  European  governments  agreed  for  the  first  time 
to  accept  the  American  plan  of  naturalizing  immigrants. 
They  promised  to  treat  as  American  citizens,  rather  than  as 


^  QUESTIONS    AND    EXERCISES  453 

i 

runaway  subjects,  those  who  had  resided  in  the  United 
States  five  years  and  who  had  renounced  their  former  alle- 
giance. But  it  was  understood  that  if  the  new  citizens  re- 
turned to  their  native  land  and  lived  in  it  for  two  years,  they 
again  became  its  citizens  and  ceased  to  be  Americans. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  were  the  Alabama  Claims?     How  were  they  settled? 

2.  What  excuse  had  France  for  sending  an  army  into  Mexico?  What 
plan  had  the  Emperor  of  France  formed?     How  was  the  question  settled? 

3.  How  did  Alexander  II  of  Russia  obtain  the  name  of  Emancipator?  How 
did  the  United  States  come  to  possess  Alaska? 

4.  Why  did  the  Canadian  provinces  form  the  Union  or  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada? Describe  the  government  of  Canada.  What  provinces  formed  the 
Union?     What  one  has  never  joined  the  Union? 

5.  What  is  England's  new  way  of  treating  her  colonies?  Does  she  require 
them  to  pay  taxes?     What  changes  have  been  made  in  the  British  government? 

6.  What  caused  the  Civil  War  in  Germany?    What  was  the  result? 

7.  What  change  in  government  took  place  in  France?  In  what  way  is 
the  government  of  France  more  like  that  of  England  than  that  of  the  United 
States? 

8.  What  did  the  Italians  do  about  the  same  time?  What  arrangement 
did  Austria  and  Hungary  make? 

9.  Which  were  the  great  united  nations  in  1876? 

10.   What  effect  had  the  victory  of  the  United  States  on  its  relations  with 
European  countries? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Prepare  a  list  of  great   questions  which  the  United  States  and   Great 
Britain  have  peaceatjily  settled.     Tell  how  each  was  settled. 

2.  Compare  England's  treatment  of  the  thirteen  American  colonies  in  1765- 
1775  with  that  of  the  Canadian  provinces  in  1867. 

3.  Prepare  a  list  of  the  countries  in  which  a  struggle  for  "union"  occurred. 

4.  Review  the  change  in  government  in  England  in  1832.     See  page  329. 

Important  Date: 

1872.   England  and  the  United  States  settle  the  dispute  over  the  Ala- 
bama Claims  by  arbitration. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  PRAIRIE  STATES 

The  Pacific  Railroads.  —  During  the  Civil  War,  when  Con- 
gress was  anxious  to  keep  the  Pacific  coast  loyal  to  the  United 
States,  it  voted  to  aid  several  companies  in  the  construction 
of  railroads  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  to  the  coast.  Two 
companies  began  building,  the  Central  Pacific  from  Sacra- 
mento eastward,  and  the  Union  Pacific  from  Omaha  west- 
ward. The  government  gave  these  roads  twenty  sections  of 
land,  or  12,800  acres,  for  every  mile  of  road,  and  besides  lent 
them  money.  A  race  was  started  to  see  which  could  build 
the  most  before  they  met.^ 

The  Union  Pacific  had  the  advantage  at  first.  Its  line  west 
of  Omaha  followed  the  Oregon  Trail  through  a  country  so 
fiat  that  little  grading  was  necessary.  More  than  half  of 
the  workmen  were  veterans  of  the  Civil  War.  The  Central 
Pacific  advanced  more  slowly  across  the  Sierra  Nevada  range, 
but  it  made  up  in  speed  when  it  reached  the  great  desert 
basin.  Thousands  of  Chinese  laborers  were  brought  into  the 
United  States  for  this  work.  The  two  Hnes  met  in  1869  on 
the  shores  of  Salt  Lake  near  Ogden. 

The  Pacific  railroad  was  a  great  undertaking.  The  iron 
for  the  western  part  had  to  be  carried  by  steamboats  from 
the  East  around  Cape  Horn  or  by  way  of  Panama.     For  the 

^  The  United  States  gave  the  railroad  companies  that  built  the  first  raihoad 
system  connecting  the  Missouri  River  with  the  Pacific  coast  33,000,000  acres 
of  land,  an  area  much  larger  than  the  state  of  Pennsylvania.  It  gave  to  the 
companies  which  built  the  western  railroads  enough  land  to  make  five  states  like 
Pennsylvania,  or  a  country  larger  than  France  or  Germany. 


THE  PACIFIC  RAILROADS 


455 


eastern  part  wood  and  iron  and  other  materials  were  taken 
up  the  Missouri  River  in  steamboats  or  across  western  Iowa 
to  Omaha  by  ' 'prairie  schooners."  The  eastern  railroads 
had  not  yet  reached  Omaha.  The  great  works  of  the  past, 
like  the  National  Road,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Portage  Railway,  seemed  small  beside  this  road.  Ex- 
cept for  the  small  Mormon  town  of  Ogden,  no  settlements 


leans 
Gulf  of  Mexico 


The  Principal  Railroads  West  of  the  Mississippi  in  1884 

had  been  made  between  Omaha  and  Sacramento,  nearly 
1800  miles.  The  little  settlements  at  Denver,  Salt  Lake,  and 
Carson  were  off  the  route  chosen. 

The  earlier  railroads  had  commonly  been  built  to  carry 
goods  to  the  pioneers  or  to  carry  their  products  to  the  markets. 
The  new  roads  crossed  regions  as  yet  uninhabited.  Like  the 
rivers  of  the  Atlantic  coast  or  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  they 
guided  the  work  of  settlement.  The  immigrants  scattered 
on  either  side,  adding  village  to  village  until  the  slender  band 
reached  across  the  continent.  In  this  way  the  Pacific  coast 
and  the  Mississippi  Valley  were  bound  together  as  never 
before. 


456 


THE  PRAIRIE   STATES 


Panic  of  1873.  —  Other  railroads  were  begun  while  the 
work  on  the  Central  Pacific  and  the  Union  Pacific  was  being 
completed.  Indeed,  as  many  miles  of  road  were  built  in 
the  four  years  ending  in  187 1  as  existed  in  the  whole  country 
shortly  before  the  Civil  War.  Men,  in  imagination,  saw  towns 
springing  up  everywhere.  They  borrowed  recklessly  to  pay 
for  rails,  engines,  and  cars,  or  to  buy  town  sites  and  lay 
them  out.  The  consequence  was  a  panic  as  bad  as  the  panic 
of  1837.     The  country  was  only  beginning  to  recover  from  it 

when  the  Centennial  Exposi- 
tion was  held.  For  some 
time  railroad  building  almost 
stopped.  During  these  years 
the  settlement  of  the  West 
went  on  more  slowly. 

The  Indian  Question. — The 
Indians  watched  the  advance 
of  the  settlers  with  angry  feel- 
ings. Many  of  them  remem- 
bered that  ever  since  white 
men  had  landed  on  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  the  Indian  had  been 
forced  to  give  up  one  hunting 
ground  after  another.  As  in  the  colonial  days,  the  settlers  on 
the  frontier  were  often  attacked.  The  government  sent  sol- 
diers to  punish  the  hostile  tribes,  especially  the  Sioux  and 
the  Apaches.  Several  little  wars  took  place.  In  a  campaign 
against  the  Sioux  in  Montana,  led  by  their  chief.  Sitting  Bull, 
General  George  Custer,  a  young  cavalry  officer  who  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Civil  War,  and  264  of  his  troopers 
were  suddenly  surrounded  and  all  of  them  killed.  Only 
Custer's  horse,  Comanche,  and  a  half-breed  scout  escaped. 
This  was  the  last  important  Indian  War.  By  1877  most  of 
the  Indians  were  placed  on  reservations,  either  in  the  neigh- 


SiTTiNG  Bull 


THE  RANCHES  457 

borhood  of  their  old  hunting  grounds  or  in  the  great  Indian 
Territory  south  of  Kansas. 

New  Settlements.  —  With  the  building  of  railroads  a  con- 
stantly increasing  stream  of  settlers  poured  into  the  states 
and  territories  beyond  the  Mississippi.  Part  of  them  were 
from  older  states  and  part  from  Europe.  In  the  year  1883 
alone,  more  than  750,000  immigrants  entered  the  United 
States,  chiefly  from  Great  Britain  and  Germany.  There 
also  came  thousands  of  Danes,  Norwegians,  and  Swedes. 
Many  of  these  immigrants  settled  in  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Ne- 
braska, and  the  Dakotas.  Unlike  the  settlers  farther  east, 
those  who  chose  lands  on  the  prairies  found  no  forests  to 
supply  them  with  building  material,  and  were  obliged  for  a 
time  to  live  in  sod-houses  or  dug-outs.  Corn  or  grass  was 
often  their  only  fuel. 

The  Ranches.  —  The  earHest  settlers  on  the  plains  de- 
pended chiefly  on  their  herds  of  cattle.  The  frontiersman  in 
America,  whether  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  first  colonial 
mountain  barrier  or  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  raised  many 
cattle.  The  vacant  lands  in  the  neighborhood  gave  him  free 
pasture  for  his  herds.  This  was  especially  true  on  the  great 
plains.     Nature  had  made  it  a  nation's  pasture  land. 

Many  eastern  men  estabhshed  vast  ranches  on  the  plains 
west  of  the  farming  settlements.  These  were  mostly  on  the 
borderland,  where  the  prairie  ends  and  the  mountains  begin, 
a  region  too  dry  for  ordinary  farming.  Cowboys  in  strange 
western  dress,  many  of  them  Mexicans,  tended  great  herds 
ot  ^ong-horned  cattle.  Cowboys  and  steers  took  the  place 
of  the  roving  Indians  and  the  wild  buffaloes.  The  immense 
herds  of  buffaloes  disappeared,  slaughtered  by  wasteful, 
pleasure-seeking  hunters.  No  fences  were  needed  on  the 
ranches.  The  cowboys  Hved  with  the  herds,  riding  fleet 
bronchos  and  sleeping  in  the  open  air,  much  as  did  the  Arabs 
of  old. 


458  THE  PRAIRIE  STATES 

It  was  a  common  thing  for  one  ranch  to  possess  five,  ten, 
or  twenty  thousand  head  of  cattle,  which  fed  over  a  regior 
equal  to  a  half  dozen  western  counties.  A  few  cowboys 
were  able  to  take  entire  care  of  them.  Branding  the  calves 
with  the  mark  of  the  ranch,  so  that  they  would  be  known 
fighting  cattle  thieves,  and  driving  the  fattened  stock  to  the 
distant  railroads  once  a  year,  formed  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  ranchmen.  Grass,  browned  and  cured  on  the  ground, 
was  the  winter's  food  for  the  cattle.  A  deep  valley,  where 
little  snow  fell,  formed  the  only  shelter. 

The  cattle  raised  on  the  ranches  at  slight  cost  were  carried 
or  driven  to  Omaha  and  Kansas  City.  At  first  they  were 
forwarded  to  St.  Louis  or  Chicago.  By  1862  Chicago  had 
become  the  center  of  the  meat  packing  business,  as  Cincin- 
nati had  been  in  the  preceding  period.  Chicago  has  always 
kept  the  lead  in  the  business,  although  Omaha  and  Kansas 
City  have  gradually  gained  a  large  share  in  it.  From  i860  to 
1880  the  value  of  the  business  increased  from  $30,000,000  to 
$300,000,000.  Meat  was  sent  all  over  the  country  in  refrig- 
erator cars.  After  1876  great  quantities  were  prepared  for 
sale  in  Europe.  The  refrigerator  cars  took  the  meat  to  an 
eastern  port,  where  it  was  packed  in  refrigerating  rooms  on 
steamships. 

From  1870  to  1890  farmers  gradually  took  up  the  open 
lands.  Within  ten  or  twenty  years  the  free  prairies  for  graz- 
ing disappeared  and  the  great  ranches  were  crowded  out. 
Many  small  herds  of  better  breeds  of  short-horned  cattle 
replaced  the  large  herds.  Farmers,  rather  than  cowboys, 
kept  them  on  the  grazing  grounds  and  guarded  them.  Great 
barns  were  built  to  shelter  them  in  winter,  and  stores  of 
fodder  were  prepared  for  the  winter's  food. 

By  1890  the  free  fertile  lands  of  the  West  were  nearly  all 
occupied.  No  longer  could  men  leave  shops  or  eastern  farms 
when  wages  were  low  and  take  up  free  farms.    The  immi- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  WEST 


459 


grant  from  Europe  had  little  chance  to  become  a  landowner 
at  almost  no  expense,  as  he  had  been  doing  since  the  founding 
of  Jamestown. 

The  colonists  had  taken  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  to 
occupy  the  lands  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  first  moun- 
tain barrier,  a  region  about  two  hundred  miles  wide.  But 
the  later  pioneers  swept  over  the  West,  which  was  more  than 
five  times  as  v/ide,  in  twenty  years.     The  difference  was  due 


■H..^ 


A  Cattle  Ranch  in  1880 


in  part  to  the  railroads  which  helped  the  modern  pioneers 
to  reach  the  western  lands  and  to  create  cities  almost  over 
night.  It  seemed  as  though  the  West  possessed  Aladdin's 
magic  lamp. 

For  a  while  the  new  towns  and  country  districts  were  almost 
without  government.  Ruffians  took  refuge  in  the  frontier 
towns,  and  in  the  ranches  and  the  mining  camps  in  the  moun- 
tain districts  farther  west.  They  made  a  '^Wild  West"  of 
the  region.  Showmen  now  like  to  travel  over  the  country 
exhibiting  the  ways  of  such  rough  western  towns.  These 
days  of  lawlessness  and  danger,  which  have  always  been  a 


46o  THE  PRAIRIE  STATES 

characteristic  of  the  American  frontier,  lasted  only  a  short 
time.  Neat  frame  houses  took  the  place  of  the  sod-houses 
and  the  dug-outs,  and  thrifty  stores  came  in  where  gambling 
dens  had  thriven.  Orderly  town,  county,  and  state  govern- 
ments were  modelled  after  those  in  the  older  states  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Colorado  had 
by  entering  the  Union  extended  the  states  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  CaHfornia  and  Oregon  had  long  stood  as 
sentinels  of  the  Union  in  the  West.  In  1889  and  1890  the 
frontier  governments  of  North  and  South  Dakota,  of 
Montana,  Wyoming,  Idaho,  and  Washington  became  of  age 
and  took  their  place  beside  their  sister  states.  They  com- 
pleted a  sohd  double  tier  of  states  across  the  northern  part 
of  the  United  States.  In  1896  Utah,  first  settled  by  the 
Mormons,  became  a  state,  and  so  filled  in  the  space  between 
Colorado  and  Nevada. 

What  the  Pioneers  did.  —  The  earliest  settlers  on  the 
prairie  farms  escaped  some  of  the  hardships  of  the  other 
frontiersmen.  They  did  not  have  the  drudgery  of  felhng 
huge  forests  or  digging  drains  in  swamps.  They  never  suffered 
from  malaria  and  ague  as  the  pioneers  did  elsewhere.  But 
they  had  other  troubles  instead.  Some  years  the  green  crops 
dried  up  in  the  fields  before  harvest  time  for  the  want  of 
enough  rain.  Many  men  gave  up  the  hard  struggle  and 
returned  to  the  eastern  states.  Those  who  stayed  finally 
learned  to  plant  crops  that  needed  less  rain  and  to  cultivate 
the  land  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  best  use  of  all  the  water 
in  the  soil.  As  they  grew  more  skilful  in  dry  farming  they 
pushed  to  the  very  edge  of  the  desert-like  plains  lying  near 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  Such  pioneers  taught  others,  and  now 
failure  occurs  no  oftener  there  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  States.  The  conquerors  of  America  are  the  sturdy 
pioneers  who  have  stayed  on  the  frontiers  until  nature  yielded 
to  their  will. 


WHEAT  FOR  THE  WORLD 


461 


Wheat  for  the  World.  —  Farming  large  tracts  of  land  was 
easier  on  the  plains  than  elsewhere.  The  prairies  were  level, 
unbroken,  and  extensive.  Railroads  were  at  hand  to  carry 
large  crops  to  the  cities,  where  the  increasing  population 
needed  more  food.  For  such  reasons  some  men  have  estab- 
hshed  mammoth  farms,  especially  wheat  fields.  Often  these 
cover  10,000  or  20,000  acres.  On  them,  powerful  traction 
engines  or  an  army  of  teams  draw  great  machines  —  combined 
plows,  seed-drills, 
and  harrows  —  for 
planting,  with 
reapers  and  thresh- 
ers for  harvesting. 

Great  farms  of 
this  kind  are  the 
exception.  Moder- 
ate sized  farms  of 
160  or  320  acres  are 
the  rule.  Every- 
where the  farmers  use  the  newer  farm  machinery.  They 
prepare  the  soil  by  riding  plows  and  cultivators,  put  in 
the  seed  by  the  use  of  planters  and  drills,  and  harvest 
with  self-binders.  Steam  threshing  machines  complete  the 
work. 

Mills  and  Elevators.  —  The  other  work  of  the  middle  and 
farther  West  is  done  on  an  equally  large  scale.  Monster 
grain  elevators  were  built  at  railroad  centers  or  lake  ports 
Kke  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  MinneapoKs,  St.  Paul,  Chicago, 
and  Buffalo.  In  MinneapoKs,  especially,  great  flour  mills 
began  to  grind  thousands  of  barrels  of  flour  a  day.  The  small 
mills,  driven  by  water  power,  which  formerly  dotted  wheat 
growing  regions,  gradually  fell  into  ruins.  The  sale  of  wheat 
to  Europeans  increased  rapidly.  It  was  ten  times  as  great 
in  1880  as  in  i860. 


The  New  Way  of  Mowing  Grass 
With  gasoline  motor 


462  THE  PRAIRIE  STATES 


QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  ways  did  the  United  States  help  to  build  the  first  Pacific  rail- 
roads? Why  was  building  the  Pacific  railroads  a  difficult  undertaking?  What 
effect  had  the  western  railroads  on  settlement? 

2.  What  caused  the  panic  of  1873?  What  effect  had  the  panic  on  the  settle- 
ment of  the  West? 

3.  What  attitude  did  the  Indians  take  toward  the  settlement  of  the  prairies? 
How  did  the  United  States  treat  the  Indians? 

4.  W^ho  settled  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi?  How  did  the  pioneers  on 
the  prairies  live? 

5.  Describe  the  cattle  ranches  of  the  frontier.  Where  were  the  cattle  mar- 
keted?    What  change  finally  took  place  in  the  cattle  country? 

6.  Why  was  the  prairie  region  more  rapidly  settled  than  the  Atlantic  coast? 

7.  What  new  states  were  formed  in  the  West? 

8.  What  did  the  western  farmers  produce?  How  did  the  farmers  do  their 
work?     What  industry  grew  up  in  the  wheat-growing  region? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Name  and  locate  the  chief  Pacific  railroads. 

2.  Compare  the  methods  of  farming  in  colonial  days  with  those  in  the  western 
states  to-day.     See  pages  123-124. 

3.  How  did  the  settlers  reach  the  frontier  in  colonial  days?     How  in  the 
days  of  the  settlement  of  the  western  prairies? 

Important  Dates : 

1869.     Completion  of  the  first  Pacific  railroad. 

1890.     By  this  date  the  free  lands  useful  for  farming,  without  irrigation, 

are  mostly  gone,  thus  ending  the  era  of  colonization  within  the 

United  States. 


CHAPTER  XLI 


NEW  METHODS  OF  WORKING 

The  New  Factory  System.  —  The  early  factories  took  from 
the  household  and  the  small  shop  such  industries  as  spinning, 
weaving,  and  forging.  As  the  use  of  machinery  increased  and 
new  inventions  were  made,  other  household  industries  —  the 
making  of  butter  and  cheese,  the  preserving  or  canning  of 
fruits  and  vegetables,  the  curing,  and  even  the  cooking  of 
meats  —  were  moved,  at  least  in  part,  to  the  factory. 


Scene  in  a  Knitting  Mill 

Factories  also  increased  in  size,  as  water  power  was  used 
less  and  steam  more.  Many  factories  originally  located  near 
swift-running  streams  were  abandoned.  If  the  water  power 
was  abundant,  they  were  enlarged,  but  steam  was  often  used 
as  well  as  water  power. 

The  towns  of  New  England,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania,  which  first  began  weaving  silk,  cotton,   and 


464  THE  NEW  METHODS  OF  WORKING 

woolen  goods,  or  tanning  leather,  and  making  these  products 
into  clothing,  shoes,  and  gloves,  still  continue  in  the  same 
industries.  Their  factories  are  commonly  run  by  steam  or 
electricity.  They  must  often  send  a  distance  for  fuel  as  well 
as  for  materials  like  cotton,  wool,  and  hides.  In  spite  of 
these  disadvantages  they  are  able  to  continue  in  the  same 
business  because  they  have  made  a  reputation  for  good  work- 
manship and  have  a  body  of  trained  men  and  women  in  their 
factories. 

Since  the  Civil  War,  factories  have  slowly  migrated  wherever 
fuel,  materials,  and  skilled  workers  are  found  near  together. 
For  this  reason  cotton  mills  are  rising  in  the  South,  woolen 
mills  and  shoe  factories  in  the  middle  West.  It  is  still  true 
that  the  western  people  raise  most  of  the  food  and  produce 
most  of  the  materials  used  in  manufacturing,  while  the  eastern 
people  make  most  of  the  finished  articles. 

The  Uses  made  of  Electricity.  —  Marvelous  things  have 
been  accomplished  in  the  same  period  in 'the  use  of  electricity. 
In  1866,  after  many  efforts,  a  telegraph  cable  was  laid  through 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  Europe.  Several  years  later  an  in- 
ventor improved  Morse's  telegraph  so  that  two  messages 
could  be  sent  in  opposite  directions  over  the  same  wire  at  one 
time.     Soon  four  messages  could  be  sent  at  once. 

Alexander  Graham  Bell,  a  teacher  of  the  deaf,  while  study- 
ing the  human  ear,  thought  of  a  plan  of  ''  talking  by  tele- 
graph." In  1876,  after  years  of  work,  he  exhibited  a 
successful  instrument  at  the  Centennial  in  Philadelphia. 
This  was  the  telephone.  Men  called  him  "a,  crank  who 
says  he  can  talk  through  a  wire,"  but  his  invention  was 
quickly  adopted  in  America  and  Europe.  By  1890  it  was  in 
common  use. 

The  Dynamo.  —  Inventors  in  Germany,  England,  France, 
Italy,  and  the  United  States,  working  at  the  same  time,  found 
out  how  to  make  electricity  on  a  large  scale  and  cheaply.     The 


THE  USE  OF  ELECTRICITY  465 

machine  which  they  invented  for  this  purpose  was  called  a 
dynamo.  Though  first  made  about  1866,  it  did  not  come  into 
ordinary  use  in  the  United  States  until  after  1880.  The 
dynamo  is  commonly  driven  by  a  steam  or  gasoline  engine 
or  by  a  water  wheel.  The  electricity  which  it  makes  can  be 
carried  a  long  distance  by  means  of  wires.  Other  inventors 
discovered  many  uses  for  the  electricity  which  the  dynamo 
produces.  Some  learned  how  to  use  the  current  to  run 
machinery.     This  is  done  by  means  of  a  motor. 

In  1878  Charles  F.  Brush  invented  the  arc  light  for  streets 
and  parks,  while  Thomas  A.  Edison,  in  the  following  year, 
made  an  electric  light  for  houses.  In  the  meantime,  a  Ger- 
man in  Berhn,  Dr.  Siemens,  had  constructed  a  street  railway 
car  run  by  an  electric  motor.  All  these  inventions  worked 
great  changes  in  the  cities.  Street  cars,  which  had  at  first 
been  drawn  by  horses,  were  soon  moved  by  electricity.  A 
line  in  Baltimore  and  another  in  Richmond  in  1885  were  the 
first  in  the  United  States  to  make  the  change.  By  1895  few 
horse  cars  were  left  in  the  United  States.  This  change  within 
the  cities  from  1885  to  1895  was  followed  by  the  building  of 
electric  railways  from  town  to  town.  Such  lines,  bringing 
the  town  and  country  within  easy  reach  of  each  other,  made 
country  fife  pleasanter  and  helped  the  towns  and  cities  to 
obtain  food  from  the  neighboring  farms  and  to  carry  on  trade 
with  one  another.  Several  of  the  older  railroads  have  begun 
to  use  electric  instead  of  steam  locomotives. 

The  most  wonderful  use  for  electricity  was  yet  to  come. 
Scientific  men  had  long  known  that  electricity  travels  through 
space  without  the  necessity  of  following  a  wire,  like  waves 
on  the  surface  of  the  water.  In  1896  Marconi,  an  Italian 
electrician,  invented  an  instrument  for  telegraphing  through 
spac€  without  wires.  The  method  was  rapidly  improved 
until  messages  could  be  sent  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
from   ship   to   ship  in  mid-ocean.     The  wireless  telegraph, 


466 


THE  NEW  METHODS  OF  WORKING 


invented  in  Europe,  was  almost  immediately  adopted  in  the 

United  States. 

Within  a  few  years  after  the  invention  of  the  dynamo,  the 

motor,  and  the  electric  light,  many  private  companies  went 

into  the  business  of  making 
electric  current  and  selling  it 
for  Hghting  and  for  running 
machinery.  Some  electric 
plants  use  coal  for  fuel,  but 
others  depend  on  water 
power.  In  1902  great  ma- 
chines were  built  to  use  a 
part  of  the  water  of  Niagara 
River  above  the  Falls.  The 
electric  current  is  carried  on 
wires    to    Buffalo,    22    miles 


#^ 


^,    away. 


and 


even 


to    cities 

much  farther  off.      In  these 

it  is  used  to  light  streets  and 

buildings,   run  factories,  and 

move  street  cars.    Rivers  are 

A  Modern  "  Sky  -  Scraper  "         ^^de  to  do  work  which  would 

Wooiworth  Building,  New  York;  the  tall-   require  thousauds  of  horscs. 

est  building  in  the  world.    This  has  a     ^j^^  nineteenth   ccutury  was 

steel  frame  -^ 

the   age   of    steam,    but    the 
twentieth  century  is  becoming  the  age  of  electricity. 

Steel.  —  The  need  of  a  material  stronger  and  more  durable 
than  iron  led  to  the  invention  of  steel.  In  1856  Henry 
Bessemer,  an  Enghshman,  discovered  a  cheap  method  —  since 
called  the  Bessemer  method  —  of  converting  ordinary  iron 
into  steel.  Bessemer's  method,  as  well  as  other  new  methods, 
was  introduced  into  the  United  States.  By  1890  the  Ameri- 
cans equaled,  if  they  did  not  surpass,  other  nations  in  making 
iron  and  steel.     Steel  was  soon  used  for  finer  grades  of  tools 


IRON  AND   STEEL 


467 


and  delicate  surgical  instruments.  Steamships  were  built  of 
it,  and  were  made  larger  as  the  builders  learned  to  use  the 
new  materials.  The  modern  steamship,  framed  with  steel 
beams  and  covered  with  sheets  of  steel,  is  capable  of  carrying 
two  or  three  thousand  passengers  and  many  car-loads  of 
freight  across  the  Atlantic  in  five  or  six  days.  The  huge 
buildings  called  ''sky-scrapers"  are  steel-framed.  The  parts 
of  such  structures  are  made  in  a  mill,  ready  to  be  put  to- 
gether.    Since  the  introduction  of  steel  the  railroads  have 


Loading  Iron  Ore  on  a  Boat  on  Lake  Superior 


been  entirely  rebuilt  at  great  cost.  The  rails  of  the  track, 
many  of  the  bridges,  even  many  of  the  cars,  are  made  of 
steel. 

How  Iron  is  obtained.  —  Great  improvements  have  also 
taken  place  in  mining  ore,  in  carrying  it  to  the  mills,  and  in 
manufacturing  iron.  Formerly  most  of  the  iron  ore  came 
from  Pennsylvania,  but  now  three-fourths  come  from  the 
mountain  ranges  about  Lake  Superior.  Much  is  also  mined 
in  Alabama.  In  Michigan  and  Minnesota  powerful  steam 
shovels  load  the  soft  iron  ore  upon  railway  cars.  Railroads 
take  it  to  lake  ports  and  dump  it  into  great  bins,  high  above 
the  water-level.  Chutes  lead  the  ore  into  the  holds  of  steel 
steamboats  five  or  six  hundred  feet  long,  and  capable  of  car- 
rying five  or  six  thousand  tons  at  once.     These  great  carriers 


468 


THE  NEW  METHODS  OF  WORKING 


take  the  ore  to  ports  chiefly  on  the  south  shore  of  lakes  Erie 
and  Michigan,  near  where  it  is  wanted.  Huge  unloading 
machines  operated  by  steam  or  electricity  Hft  the  ore  from 
the  boats  to  railroad  cars  in  which  it  goes  to  the  iron  mills. 
At  every  step  it  is  handled  by  machinery,  and  the  human 
hand  need  not  touch  it  or  do  more  than  direct  the  machines 
which  perform  the  work. 

In  order  to  separate  the  iron  in  the  ore  from  other  mate- 
rials, iron  ore,  coke,  and  limestone  are  poured  by  iron  buckets 

into  a  blast  fur- 
nace, and  a  running 
stream  of  Hquid 
iron  comes  out  and 
is  cast  into  what 
is  called  pig  iron. 
The  pig  iron  is 
then  made  into 
cast  iron,  wrought 
iron,  or  into  some 
kind  of  steel.  Ma- 
chines pull  the 
steel  into  rods  and 
wire,  or  roll  it  into  bars  and  sheets.  These  in  turn  are  made 
into  tools,  machinery,  and  building  material. 

In  1876  iron  was  chiefly  manufactured  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Pittsburgh.  After  the  ore  was  obtained  principally  from 
the  Northwest,  other  cities  became  rivals  of  Pittsburgh. 
Steel  mills  must  be  located  where  they  can  bring  their  coal 
and  iron  ore  together  cheaply  and  at  places  from  which  the 
finished  articles  can  be  forwarded  to  the  best  markets.  For 
this  reason  many  steel  mills  have  been  built  along  the  south 
shore  of  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Michigan,  with  Cleveland  and 
Chicago  as  the  centers. 
New  Uses  for  Iron  and  Steel.  —  Inventions  have  never 


Unloading  Iron  Ore 


NEW  USES  OF  IRON  AND   STEEL 


469 


been  made  so  fast  as  since  the  Civil  War.  Man  has  seemed 
determined  to  find  machines  for  all  his  work.  Some  were 
borrowed  from  Europeans,  others  were  invented  by  Ameri- 
cans, some  are  merely  improvements  of  older  inventions, 
others  introduce  entirely  new  methods  of  work.  Many  old 
tools  like  the  blacksmith's  hammer  and  the  wood-worker's 
chisel  and  the  laborer's  shovel  were  enlarged  and  driven  by 


^-v 


A  Bessemer  Converter  of  Iron  into  Steel 


steam  or  electricity.  These  great  hammers,  lathes,  and 
steam  shovels  are  able  to  do  the  work  of  scores  of  men 
working  in  the  old  manner.  Saws  and  planes  and  chisels 
which  cut  stone  and  iron  as  easily  as  wood  have  come  into 
use.  Machines  have  been  built  for  cutting  coal  in  mines, 
digging  ditches,  and  laying  railroad  tracks. 

Other  machines  make  wire,  tacks,  bolts,  screws,  nails,  and 
pins.  One  of  them  takes  thin  wire,  cuts  it  into  short  lengths, 
puts  a  head  on  the  pieces,  sharpens  these  at  the  other  end,  and 
sticks  them  into  papers — a  paper  of  pins  ready  for  the  market. 


470  THE  NEW  METHODS  OF  WORKING 

The  machinery  for  making  paper  and  for  printing  news- 
papers and  books  is  still  more  remarkable.  Paper  was 
formerly  made  entirely  from  cotton  and  hnen  rags.  The 
demand  for  a  cheaper  paper  led  to  the  discovery  of  a  new 
method  of  manufacturing  it.  Soft  poplar,  pine  or  spruce 
S  are  ground  into  a  pulp,  dried,  and  rolled  into  sheets^ 
The  modern  printing-press  prints,  folds,  and  even  counts  the 
finished  newspapers  at  the  rate  of  20,000  an  hour.  With 
another  ingenious  machine,  called  the  hnotype,  or  hne-o  - 
type  "  a  printer  can  set  a  Une  of  type  almost  as  easily  as 
one  can  write  the  words  with  a  typewriter. 

A  Ust  of  the  new  machines  would  be  very.  long.  None 
are  more  remarkable  than  the  cash  registers  and  calculating 
machines  which  add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide  or  the 
phonographs,  stereopticons,  and  moving-picture  machines^ 

Gas  and  Petroleum.  -  Gas  made  from  coal  had  ong  been 
used  in  American  towns  for  lighting  houses  and  streets. 
Natural  gas  obtained,  like  petroleum,  from  deep  wells  came 
Lo  common  use  about  1872.  Pipe  lines  were  built,  through 
which  the  gas  could  be  carried  to  the  large  cities,  sometimes 
i.o  or  200  miles  away.  Gas  from  Pennsylvania  West  Vir- 
iiia  Ohio,  and  Indiana  helped  the  cities  to  build  up  manu- 
^^ res,  fo  it  was  a  cheap  fuel.  The  more  recent  discovery 
of  natural  gas  in  southeastern  Kansas  and  eastern  Oklahoma 
has  started  a  new  manufacturing  center. 

The  uses  of  petroleum  have  been  multipHed  Raw  petro- 
leum is  used  for  fuel  in  many  steamships,  and  also  m  loco- 
moSves,  especially  in  California.  The  kerosene  lamp  was 
Evented  during  the  Civil  War,  and  the  gasohne  s  ove  soon 
afterwards  The  principal  use  of  gasohne  is  m  a  new  form 
of  eTgt  About' the  time  of  the  Philadelphia  Centenma 
German  mventors  constructed  a  successful  gas-engme^  The 
STsion  of  a  mixture  of  gas  and  air  drove  a  piston  which  in 
ton  moved  the  wheels.    Scores  of  inventors  had  been  work- 


W'^'Ks^msaui 


NEW  INVENTIONS  471 

ing  on  the  idea  for  more  than  a  century.  The  new  engine 
proved  popular.  It  had  several  advantages  over  the  steam- 
engine;  it  was,  first  of  all,  simpler  to  run  and  Kghter  in 
weight.  The  gas  could  be  made  from  alcohol  as  well  as 
gasoline.  In  Germany  alcohol  is  chiefly  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  Automobile,  1886.  —  About  ten  years  after  the  in- 
vention of  the  gas-engine  and  while  engine-builders  were 
perfecting  it,  other  inventors  found  new  uses  for  the  machine. 
Germans  first  used  the  gas-engine  to  run  carriages  and 
wagons,  thus  producing  the  automobile.  The  manufacturers 
of  every  country  quickly  adopted 
the  German  plan,  and  improved 
upon  the  first  clumsy  cars.  Work- 
men and  inventors  of  every  coun- 
try rivaled  one  another  in  efforts 
to  produce  the  best.  The  gas- 
engine  is  also  rapidly  being  used 
to  drive  farm  machinery.  Goods 
which  men  once  carried  to  market 
on  their  backs,  and  which  later 
oxen  or  horses  hauled,  steam,  gas, 

or   electric   cars   now   take  more  _  ^    ^ 

swiftly  and  more  cheaply.  ^     _=i=^  t£^C  j----  --^ 

The  Aeroplane.  —  For  centuries  .     ^     "^' 

■^  ^  ^  An  Aeroplane 

scientists  dreamed  of  an  invention 

by  which  man  could  travel  through  the  air  Hke  a  bird  in 
flight.  Balloons  were  made  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
but  they,  like  the  saiHng  vessel,  were  at  the  mercy  of  every 
wind.  European  inventors  were  quick  to  apply  the  light 
gas-engine  to  the  balloon,  changing  its  shape  so  that  it  would 
be  more  manageable.  The  hghtness  of  the  gas-engine  made 
possible  what  seems  the  most  marvelous  invention  of  all.  In 
1905  the  Wright  Brothers,  after  patient  trials,,  made  a  suc- 
cessful aeroplane  or  flying-machine. 


472  THE  NEW  METHODS  OF  WORKING 

Expositions.  -  Several  times  since,  the  Centennial  Expo- 
sition other  expositions  have  been  held,  which  gave  the 
people  opportunities  to  see  what  rapid  progress  was  bemg 
made,  not  only  by  Americans  but  also  by  all  nations.  The 
World's  Fair  or  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  m  1893 
was  intended  partly  to  celebrate  the  400th  anmversary  of 
the  discovery  of  America.  Eleven  years  later  an  exposition 
at  St.  Louis  commemorated  the  looth  amiiversary  of  the  pur- 
chase of  Louisiana,  and  the  following  year  one  at  Portland, 


Court  of  Honor,  Columbian  Exposition 

Oregon,  commemorated  the  expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River. 

"Big  Business"  or  Trusts. -The  methods  of  managing 
business  and  manufacturing  have  changed  almost  as  much 
as  the  methods  of  work.  The  men  engaged  m  the  railroad 
business  were  the  first  to  begin  the  change.  It  did  not  seem 
necessary  that  passengers  or  freight,  going  from  New  York  o 
Boston,  or  from  New  York  to  BufEalo,  or  from  Philadelphia 
to  Chicago,  should  be  carried  over  half  a  dozen  short  railroad 
Unes,  one  ending  where  another  began.  Successful  nianagers, 
like  "Commodore"  Vanderbilt,  sought  to  umte  the  roads 
running  in  the  same  direction  or  through  the  same  district 
This  had  been  begun  before  the  Civil  War,  but  it  was  pushed 
forward  more  rapidly  afterward,  until  the  railroads  of  the 


BUSINESS  AND   CITIES  473 

country  were  united  into  several  enormous  systems,  which 
spread  over  the  United  States  like  huge  nets. 

Other  business  men  followed  the  example  of  the  railroad 
managers.  They  reached  out  from  the  city  where  they 
worked  and  purchased  similar  factories  in  other  cities.  Often 
they  did  not  buy  these  rival  factories,  but  formed  with  their 
owners  various  kinds  of  agreements  which  have  been  com- 
monly called  '^  trusts."  The  competition  or  rivalry  of  many 
men  or  groups  of  men  trying  to  sell  the  same  thing  formerly 
kept  prices  down.  When  the  great  railroad  systems  con- 
trolled the  freight  business  of  a  region,  or  when  the 
"trusts"  made  all  or  nearly  all  of  one  kind  of  goods,  they 
were  free  to  fix  prices  as  they  pleased.  The  formers  of  the 
trusts  claimed  that  their  purpose  was  to  introduce  more 
economical  methods  of  conducting  business.  They  made 
such  enormous  fortunes,  however,  by  the  new  method  that 
the  benefits  seemed  to  the  people  to  be  all  on  the  side  of  the 
railroads  and  trusts.  The  people  differ  greatly  as  to  how  the 
government  should  meet  this  new  question.  The  formation 
of  trusts  has  been  especially  successful  in  such  trades  as  iron, 
steel,  tobacco,  petroleum,  meat,  sugar,  cotton,  and  leather. 

Cities  known  for  Special  Things.  —  As  a  result  of  the 
growth  of  manufacturing,  certain  cities  became  noted  for 
producing  a  particular  article.  For  example,  Troy,  New 
York,  became  known  for  collars  and  cuffs;  Baltimore  for 
canning  oysters;  Gloverville,  New  York,  for  gloves;  Phila- 
delphia for  carpets;  Bridgeport  and  Waterbury,  Connecticut, 
for  brassware.  In  some  towns  nearly  all  the  workmen  are 
engaged  in  a  single  occupation.  In  South  Omaha  they  are 
occupied  with  meat  packing;  in  McKeesport,  Pennsylvania, 
with  iron  and  steel;  in  East  Liverpool,  Ohio,  with  pottery; 
in  Fall  River,  Massachusetts,  with  cotton  goods;  and  in 
Brockton,  Massachusetts,  with  boots  and  shoes.  Some 
places  profited  more  than  others  by  the  new  methods  of 


474  THE  NEW  METHODS  OF  WORKING 

manufacture.    The  South  is  being  entirely  changed  through 

their  introduction. 

QUESTIONS 

I  What  household  industries  have  recently  been  moved  to  the  factory? 
What  changes  have  occurred  in  the  old  factories?  Why  can  an  eastern  » 
locatedalongwayfromthematerialswhichitneedsremamprosp^ou^^^    What 

chancres  in  the  location  of  factories  are  noticeable  since  the  Civil  War? 

.What  new  use  has  been  found  for  the  telegraph?     What  improvement 

has  been  made  in  it?  ,     ,  ■  ,     i  u    4.  <;„t5 

,    Who  invented  the  telephone?    What  did  people  think  of  it  at  first? 

I  How  is  electricity  now  made?  When  did  the  dynamo  come  mto  use  in 
the  United  States?  What  uses  have  recently  been  found  for  the  electric  current 
produced  by  the  dynamo?  What  is  the  motor?  When  was  the  first  electric 
railway  system  introduced  into  the  United  States? 

e    Who  invented  the  wireless  telegraph? 

6  Describe  one  new  way  of  making  steel.    Mention  new  uses  for  steel 

7  Describe  the  process  of  obtaining  iron  ore,  shipping  it,  handling  it,  and 
making  itTnto  various  kinds  of  iron.  Where  is  the  iron  obtained?  Where  is 
it  manufactured  into  iron,  steel,  tools,  and  machinery? 

8  What  tools  and  machines  have  recently  been  invented?  How  is  each 
,„ed?    How  is  cheaper  papernow  made?    How  is  type  now  set? 

t  Whel  did  naturalgas  come  into  use?  How  did  its  discovery  affect  the 
work  of  the  regions  where  it  was  found?  .     .     i 

xo  What  uses  have  been  found  for  petroleum?  What  is  the  principal  use 
for  gasoline?    Describe  the  gas-engine.    Where  is  it  employed? 

ri  What  change  has  taken  place  in  the  management  of  rai  roads  and  facto- 
ries?' What  is  a  "  trust"?    Name  some  of  the  more  successful  ones. 

12.  What  cities  are  famous  for  some  special  kind  of  manufacturing? 

EXERCISES 

I.  Write  a  paper  on  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  work  of  the 
household.     See  pages  125-129,  250-254,  299-300. 

2  VUit  some  local  factory,  telephone  system,  electric  light  or  power  plant, 
or  street  raUway  system,  and  write  a  paper  about  its  history. 

,  Drlw  a  map  of  the  township  showing  the  telephone  hnes,  electnc  ligh 
and  ^Z  lines,  interurban  car  lines,  and  give  the  dates  of  construction  of 

*^t  What  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  method  of  heating  American  houses? 
See  pages  122-123,  369. 

'"""he  date  of  the  invention  mentioned  in  this  chapter  which  the  ma- 
jority of  the  class  believe  to  be  the  most  important. 


CHAPTER  XLH 


THE  NEW  SOUTH 

The  Southern  Farmer.  —  As  the  plantation  system  broke 
down,  the  planters  generally  moved  into  the  cities.  Some 
had  the  courage  to  start  anew  in  another  business.  Their 
sons  became  the  business  men,  the  lawyers,  and  the  physi- 
cians  of   the 

community.  /|  «.||^-^-^^ 

The  planta- 
tions were 
divided  into 
small  farms, 
and  either  sold 
or  rented  to 
the     freedmen 

or  to  farmers  who  before  the  war  had  been  too  poor  to 
own  slaves.  •  These  white  men  with  small  farms  found  cotton 
growing  profitable  for  the  first  time.  They  were  no  longer 
obHged  to  compete  with  the  owners  of  large  plantations  using 
gangs  of  slaves.  As  they  prospered  they  rented  or  purchased 
more  land.  They  also  bought  the  newly  invented  machines, 
cotton-seed  planters  and  stalk  cutters.  They  now  raise  about 
half  the  cotton,  the  other  half  being  raised  by  negroes. 
The  southern  cotton  crop  is  three-fourths  of  all  the  cotton 
raised  in  the  world. 

Renewing  the  Land.  —  For  a  long  time  the  southern 
farmer  had  trouble  with  the  soil.     Much  of  the  land  was  worn 


Haevesting  Alfalfa  in  Vlrginia 


476 


THE  NEW  SOUTH 


out  because  crop  after  crop  had  been  raised  from  it  without 
any  attempt  to  preserve  its  richness  by  the  use  of  fertihzers. 
Fortunately,  great  beds  of  phosphate  rocks  were  discovered  in 
South  CaroHna,  Florida,  and  Tennessee.  These  rocks  were 
ground  up  and  made  into  a  valuable  fertilizer,  which  was 
scattered  over  the  fields.  The  farmers  also  learned  how  to 
rotate  their  crops,  so  that  the  soil  was  rapidly  improved. 


The  consequence  has  been  that  land  once  regarded  as 
worthless  has  again  come  into  use.  Farmers  who  had  gone 
to  the  West  to  obtain  fresh  land  began  to  return  to  the  old 
homesteads.  The  cotton  growers  were  not  the  only  ones 
who  profited  by  the  new  way  of  enriching  the  soil.  All  kinds 
of  farming  were  improved  by  it.  Innumerable  truck  gardens 
and  fruit  farms  were  started.  The  Atlantic  coast  from  Mary- 
land to  Florida  has  almost  no  winter.  Five  or  six  crops  of 
vegetables  may  be  grown  on  the  same  soil  during  a  single 
season.  The  South  has,  therefore,  become  the  garden  where 
the  early  fruits  and  vegetables  of  the  whole  country  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  are  raised. 

Rice  Farming  in  the  Southwest.  —  Rice  was  formerly 
grown  only  on  lowlands  which  were  flooded  by  the  overflow 
of  the  rivers  at  certain  times  in  the  year.  Recently  the 
farmers  of  the  Southwest,  in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  have 
learned  to  drain  the  lowlands,  and  then  to  irrigate  the  fields 


•  FARMS,   MINES,  AND   MANUFACTURES         477 

by  pumping  water  over  them,  in  order  to  grow  rice.  By 
such  means  they  have  become  independent  of  floods  and 
do  not  fear  droughts.  They  use  drills  and  harvesters  and 
steam  threshers  similar  to  those  on  the  wheat  farms  of  the 
Northwest.    » 

Utilizing  the  Treasures  Underground.  —  In  this  period 
southerners  learned  that  the  oil,  gas,  coal,  and  iron  fields  of 
the  Appalachian  Mountains,  first  discovered  in  Pennsylvania 
and  West  Virginia,  extended  into  the  South  as  far  as  the 
mountains  ran.  A  Httle  later  they  found  that  the  coal,  oil, 
and  gas  fields  of  Missouri  and  Kansas  also  extended  through 
Oklahoma  into  Texas. 

The  people  of  northern  Alabama  had  long  known  that  there 
was  plenty  of  red  iron  ore  in  the  neighborhood.  On  the  old 
plantations  they  had  used  it  as  a  dye-stuff.  "  Dye-dirt"  they 
called  it.  The  Indians  had  used  it  before  them.  After  the 
Civil  War  a  geologist  explored  the  region  and  reported  that 
there  was  a  mountain  of  this  ore  twenty-five  miles  long.  A 
railroad  was  built  to  the  place.  In  the  same  region  a  coal 
field  larger  in  area  than  the  entire  state  of  Massachusetts  was 
discovered.  An  abundance  of  Hmestone,  used  in  making  iron, 
was  also  found  near  by.  Nature  had  thus  marked  northern 
Alabama  as  a  center  for  iron  manufacture.  In  187 1  a  town 
was  founded  in  the  heart  of  the  new  region  and  named  Bir- 
mingham, after  the  great  English  manufacturing  city.  The 
Alabama  village  has  now  become  a  great  city  with  all  kinds 
of  manufactures.  Other  cities  like  Chattanooga  and  Knox- 
ville,  in  eastern  Tennessee,  have  also  become  iron  manufac- 
turing centers. 

Cotton  Mills.  —  Midway  between  the  regions  where  cotton 
is  grown  and  coal  is  mined,  mills  for  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  cloth  have  recently  been  built.  It  was  cheaper  to 
haul  the  coal  down  the  mountains  than  to  carry  the  cotton 
all  the  way  to  the  coal.     Therefore  at  such  points  as  Char- 


478 


THE  NEW   SOUTH 


lotte,  Columbia,  and  Atlanta  cotton  mills  have  been  built.  In 
1876  the  South  manufactured  scarcely  any  cotton  goods,  or 
anything  else.  Now  it  produces  about  one-half  of  the  cotton 
manufactures  of   the  United   States.     South  CaroHna,  once 


^^. 


A  Southern  Cotton  Mill 


a  ^  poor  state, 
with  no  other 
wealth  than  its 
plantations  or 
farms,  now  has 
not  only  bet- 
ter farms  but 
ranks  second 
among  the 
states  in  the 
products  of  its 
cotton  mills. 

Other  Manufactures.  —  One  thing  led  to  another.  Enter- 
prising men  estabhshed  mills  to  make  oil  and  meal  out  of  the 
seed  of  the  cotton,  which  had  formerly  been  wasted.  The 
cultivation  of  peanuts  and  their  preparation  for  the  market 
has  become  an  important  industry  in  Virginia  and  North 
CaroHna.  Cotton-seed  oil  and  peanut  oil  have  many  uses 
similar  to  the  oHve  oil  of  Europe  and  California.  It  is  one 
of  the  marvels  of  nature  that  the  seed  of  the  cotton  shrub 
and  of  the  peanut  vine  produce  an  oil  like  that  of  the  fruit 
of  the  olive  tree. 

The  Appalachian  Mountains  are  covered  with  valuable 
forests.  Some  of  the  largest  logging  camps  and  most  modern 
saw-mills  in  the  world  have  been  recently  estabhshed  to  make 
use  of  them.  Factories  for  making  furniture  have  also  been 
built  in  the  timber  region.  In  1892  High  Point  in  North 
Carolina  was  a  village  unknown  beyond  the  bounds  of  its  own 
<:ounty.  It  is  now,  next  to  Grand  Rapids  in  Michigan,  the 
jgreatest  center  of  furniture  making  in  the  United  States; 


I 


WATER  POWER  AND   DRAINAGE  479 

and  other  southern  cities  are  close  to  it.  These  factories, 
mills,  and  shops  at  the  South  are  using  the  same  machines 
that  are  used  in  the  North.  Great  steam  shovels  scoop  up 
the  iron  ore  from  the  surface  around  Birmingham.  Elec- 
tric and  pneumatic  machines  cut  the  coal  loose  in  the  coal 
mines. 

Water  Power. — The  southern  towns  have  begun  to  utihze 
water  power  to  make  electricity  for  lighting  and  for  running 
machinery.  No  other  part  of  the  United  States  is  better 
situated  for  such  purposes.  The  swift-fiowing  rivers,  falHng 
from  the  mountains  to  the  plains,  to  the  east,  the  south, 
and  the  west  of  the  Appalachian  system,  offer  many  sites 
suited  to  manufacturing.  And  the  materials  needed — lum- 
ber, iron,  and  cotton  — ;  are  close  by.  There  is  enough  water 
power  within  60  miles  of  Charlotte,  North  Carolina,  to  do 
the  work  which  would  require  the  labor  of  millions  of  men 
working  day  and  night. 

Some  Great  Works  at  the  South.  —  The  southern  people 
have  carried  out  some  enterprises  as  great  as  any  in  modern 
times.  Galveston  was  originally  built  on  low  ground  and 
was  often  flooded  by  high  water  when  storms  raged  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  1902  the  city  began  a  great  sea-wall. 
It  has  not  only  finished  this,  but  has  raised  the  level  of  the 
entire  city  from  eight  to  seventeen  feet,  putting  an  end  to  the 
danger  from  floods.  New  Orleans  has  drained  and  diked  and 
filled  in,  until  it,  too,  is  safe.  Sewerage  and  drainage  have 
banished  malaria,  yellow  fever,  and  cholera,  which  were  the 
scourges  of  the  old  South.  Florida,  since  1906,  has  been 
draining  the  Everglades.  When  this  work  is  finished  an  area 
three  times  as  large  as  Connecticut  will  be  opened  to  settle- 
ment for  small  fruit  and  truck  farms.  One  writer  has  esti- 
mated that  if  the  swamps  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New 
Jersey  to  Florida  were  drained,  like  similar  lowlands  in  Hol- 
land, 10,000,000  people  might  find  homes  on  them.     It  is  in 


48o 


THE  NEW  SOUTH 


such  places  that  the  United  States  must  find  part  of  its  future 
land  for  settlement. 

The  Key  West  Railroad.  —  Since  the  Civil  War  the  South 
has  also  been  building  many  new  railroads.  The  Florida 
East  Coast  railroad  has  recently  finished  a  line  from  Miami 
to  Key  West.  To  do  this,  it  was  necessary  to  bridge  the  sea 
from  islet  to  islet  with  great  stone  arches.  The  new  railroad, 
155  miles  long,  carries  trains  to  within  90  miles  of  Havana. 

How  this  Change  affects  the  People.  —  The  change  in  the 
work  of  the  South  since  1876  is  much  like  that  in  the  North 


The  First  Train  over  the  Key  West  Railroad 

after  the  War  of  181 2.  The  negroes  and  the  poorer  white 
farmers  no  longer  make  their  sugar,  candles,  and  soap,  and 
spin  and  weave  and  dye  their  own  clothing,  as  they  often  did 
for  some  years  after  the  Civil  War.  The  negroes  are  not  now 
the  skilled  laborers  —  the  carpenters,  the  masons,  and  the 
blacksmiths  of  the  South,  as  in  the  days  of  the  great  slave 
plantations.  The  white  men  from  the  hill  country  of  the 
Appalachians  are  taking  over  these  trades.  They  are  also 
going  into  the  factories  and  shops.  The  old  class  of  poor 
white  people  is  fast  disappearing.  Varied  work  and  freedom 
from  competition  with  slaves  have  given  them  the  opportunity 
they  needed.  Their  little  cabins  are  giving  way  to  three-room 
or  four-room  houses.  Their  sons  no  longer  move  westward  as 
they  did  in  Lincoln's  boyhood,  but  they  find  the  "promised 


EDUCATION  AND  PROGRESS  481 

land"  about  them  in  the  mines,  the  forest,  the  factories,  and 
the  new  farms.  '^Captains  of  big  mills"  now  take  the  place 
of  the  former  slave-holders. 

Free  Schools.  —  The  New  South  has  meant  more  than 
making  better  use  of  land,  forests,  mines,  and  water  power. 
After  the  Civil  War  the  southern  people  began  earnestly  to 
build  up  a  free  public  school  system.  The  states  had  few 
schools  and  those  mostly  private.  The  population  of  the 
South  was  scattered  widely,  which  made  the  task  of  providing 
for  education  difficult.  The  southerners  also  wished  to  edu- 
cate white  children  and  negro  children  in  separate  schools. 
The  cost  of  the  schools  was,  moreover,  a  heavy  burden,  be- 
cause the  South  was  impoverished  by  the  war.  Northern 
men  have  helped  with  generous  gifts  of  money.  The  southern 
states  now  pay  more  in  taxes  for  schools  in  proportion  to 
their  wealth  than  the  West,  though  not  so  much  as  the  east- 
ern states.  They  have  elementary  and  high  schools,  colleges, 
universities,  agricultural  and  industrial  schools. 

Special  industrial  schools  are  provided  which  train  the 
negroes  to  be  farmers,  workmen,  and  the  teachers  of  their 
own  race.  The  most  famous  are  at  Hampton,  Virginia,  and 
Tuskegee,  Alabama.  Booker  T.  Washington,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  southern  negroes,  the  head  of  Tuskegee  Insti- 
tute, says  that  in  1865  barely  three  out  of  one  hundred  grown 
negroes  could  read  and  write,  but  that  seventy  can  now  do  so. 

The  New  South.  —  The  old  southern  cities  have  removed 
the  scars  of  the  great  war.  In  1865  Richmond  had  lost 
700  houses,  but  it  rose  rapidly  from  its  ruins.  In  1907  the 
South  held  a  great  fair  on  the  shore  of  Hampton  Roads, 
near  Norfolk,  to  celebrate  the  three  hundredth  anniversary 
of  the  settlement  at  Jamestown.  Every  southern  state  had 
its  own  building.  In  the  buildings  devoted  to  industry  and 
agriculture  the  exhibits  showed  the  progress  of  the  South 
since  the  fair  at  Philadelphia  in  1876. 


482  THE  NEW  SOUTH 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  became  of  the  planter  class?     Who  profited  from  the  breaking 
down  of  the  plantation  system? 

2.  How  was  much  southern  land  brought  back  into  cultivation?    What 
changes  have  taken  place  in  southern  farming? 

3.  What  undergroimd  treasures  have  recently  been  found  in  the  South? 
For  what  is  Birmingham  noted? 

4.  Why  were  the  cotton  mills  built  at  such  places  as  Charlotte,  Columbia, 
and  Atlanta?    What  other  manufactures  have  been  established? 

5.  Why  is  the  South  fortunately  situated  for  manufactures? 

6.  What  great  works  have  recently  been  completed?     Are  there  still  any 
opportunities  for  settlers  at  the  South? 

7.  Who  are  the  skilled  workers  of  the  South?     What  changes  in  work  are 
taking  place?     What  is  the  South  doing  for  the  education  of  its  workers? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Those  who  live  in  the  states  where  slavery  and  the  plantation  system 
existed  before  the  Civil  War  should  find  stories  to  illustrate  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  the  South.  For  example,  the  story  of  some  old  plantation 
or  the  history  of  some  factory  or  mill, 

2.  Those  who  live  in  the  North,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  should  find 
out  which  food  products  in  the  local  market  are  grown  in  the  South.  Which 
of  the  manufactures  are  made  in  the  South? 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

THE  LAST  BARRIERS 

The  Indians  become  Citizens.  —  Ever  since  Jamestown  was 
founded  the  Indian  had  been  crowded  back  from  one  hunting 
ground  to  another.  His  last  hunting  grounds  were  called 
*' reservations,"  and  for  many  years  the  government  kept  the 
white  settlers  out.  Finally,  the  friends  of  the  Indian  con- 
cluded that  it  was  better  for  him  to  give  up  his  tribal  customs, 


■^v",v,'-rv-.-,j' 


Waiting  on  the  Frontier  of  Oklahoma 

receive  his  share  of  the  tribal  reservation,  and  become  a  citi- 
zen. After  the  last  Indian  wars  were  over.  Congress  passed 
a  bill  giving  to  each  Indian  family  i6o  acres,  and  permitting 
the  sale  of  the  remainder  of  the  land  of  the  reservations,  on 
the  understanding  that  the  money  should  go  to  the  Indians. 
The  first  great  reservation  to  be  broken  up  was  Indian  Terri- 
tory, a  part  of  which  was  bought  by  the  government  and 
opened  to  ordinary  settlers. 

Oklahoma.  —  The  part  of  Indian  Territory  thrown  open 
was  called  Oklahoma,  or  the  ^'Beautiful  Land."  Thousands 
of  persons  were  eager  to  occupy  the  best  sites  for  towns  or 


484  THE  LAST  BARRIERS 

the  best  fanning  lands.  The  scene  on  the  border,  as  the  time 
approached  when  the  territory  should  be  declared  open,  was 
very  different  from  what  happened  during  the  earlier  settle- 
ment of  the  West.  Troops  were  obhged  to  keep  the  land 
seekers  back  so  that  none  should  gain  an  unfair  advantage. 
At  a  signal  exactly  at  mid-day,  the  waiting  crowd  began  a  mad 
race  for  the  best  lands.  On  foot  or  on  horseback  or  in  wagons, 
old  men  and  young  men,  and  many  women,  rushed  in  to  stake 
out  homesteads  or  town  lots.     Guthrie  was  an  open  field  at 


A  Town  in  Oklahoma  Two  Days  after  Settlement  Began 

noon  time.  At  night  10,000  people  were  encamped  there,  and 
the  inhabitants  had  already  begun  to  form  a  town  government. 
Wherever  an  Indian  reservation  was  broken  up,  the  same  wild 
scramble  for  land  occurred.  Oklahoma  grew  with  wonderful 
rapidity.  In  1907  it  was  united  with  Indian  Territory  and 
admitted  to  the  Union.  Meanwhile  the  population,  which  in 
1889  was  barely  200,000,  mostly  Indians,  increased  to  more 
than  one  and  a  half  million.  Oklahoma  is  now  larger  in 
population  than  several  of  the  original  thirteen  states.  It 
is  httle  more  than  twenty  years  old;  they  are  nearly  three 
hundred  years  old.  Its  white  population  has  been  drawn 
chiefly  from  its  neighbors,  Kansas,  Missouri,  and  Texas. 

Arizona  and  New  Mexico  have  grown  more  slowly.  They 
became  states  in  191 2,  They  filled  the  last  gap  in  a  solid  tier 
of  states  extending  along  the  southern  boundary  from  Texas 
to  Cahfornia.  The  union  of  thirteen  states  in  1789  has  become 
a  union  of  forty-eight. 


ALASKA  AND  THE  NORTHWEST  485 

The  Call  of  the  Canadian  Northwest.  —  As  the  fertile  lands 
of  the  West  were  filled,  land  seekers  turned  to  the  Canadian 
Northwest.  Farmers  and  clerks  and  laborers  moved  to  this, 
the  newest  frontier.  Canada,  like  the  United  States,  founded 
the  new  provinces  of  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta 
on  the  great  western  prairies,  and  thus  bridged  over  the  gap 
between  Ontario  and  British  Columbia.  In  1886  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railroad  was  completed  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Two  other  great  railroad  systems  tapped  various  places  in 
the  Canadian  West  —  the  Canadian  Northern  and  the  Grand 
Trunk.  The  Canadians  have  recently  taken  a  place  beside 
the  people  of  the  United  States  in  producing  wheat,  gold,  and 
silver  for  other  parts  of  the  world.  Immigrants  from  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia,  as  well  as  from 
the  United  States,  are  rapidly  making  use  of  its  vast  prairies, 
forests,  and  mines.  The  climate  no  longer  seems  to  check  the 
tide  of  migration  toward  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Hudson  Bay. 

Alaska.  —  In  1896  gold  was  discovered  2000  miles  up  the 
Yukon  River,  near  the  Alaskan  boundary.  The  greater  dis- 
coveries were  on  the  Canadian  side,  but  discoveries  at  several 
places  in  Alaska  caused  a  rush  to  the  gold  fields  like  that  to 
California  in  1849.  ^^  ^  short  time  the  population  of  Alaska 
was  more  than  doubled.  Within  five  years  Americans  took 
out  of  Alaska  $132,500,000  in  gold,  nearly  twenty  times  the 
original  cost  of  the  territory.  Nor  is  gold  the  only  thing  of 
value  there.  It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  forests  fit  for 
marketing  with  an  area  larger  than  either  the  state  of  Maine 
or  South  Carolina;  two  or  three  hundred  square  miles  of  coal- 
beds,  varying  from  two  feet  to  twenty  feet  in  thickness;  farm 
and  grazing  lands  equal  in  extent  to  the  combined  area  of  IIH- 
nois  and  Indiana.  Even  if  much  of  the  pioneer  work  within 
the  United  States  proper  is  completed,  there  is  still  work  for 
Americans  in  the  great  territory  in  the  farthest  Northwest. 

The  people  of  the  Pacific  coast  have  long  profited  by  the 


486 


THE  LAST  BARRIERS 


Alaskan  trade.  Cities  like  Tacoma  and  Seattle  have  grown 
rich  and  strong  from  it.  Tacoma  was  a  village  of  iioo  in 
1880,  in  1910  it  was  a  city  of  over  83,000.  Seattle  had  3500 
inhabitants  in  1880  and  237,000  in  1910. 

Building  the  Nation  on  the  Pacific  Side.  —  In  the  days  of 
the  Spaniards  cattle  formed  the  chief  wealth  of    CaHfornia. 


Picking  Oranges  in  California 

After  the  inhabitants  recovered  from  the  excitement  over  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  1848,  wheat  took  the  place  of  cattle. 
Grass,  gold,  and  grain  were  the  chief  means  of  gaining  wealth 
in  each  of  three  periods.  In  1876  California  and  Oregon  were 
noted  for  their  great  fields  of  wheat.  Farm  machinery  and  the 
railroads  made  this  possible.  About  1885  a  new  industry  was 
begun  along  the  Pacific  coast.  CaHfornia,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington became  famous  for  their  fruit  farms,  and  today  well- 
tilled  orchards  and  vineyards  cover  the  land.  For  a  while  wheat 
proved  a  more  profitable  crop  than  gold,  but  fruit  is  now  more 
profitable  than  either.  The  Sacramento  Valley  in  CaHfornia 
and  the  ^'Spokane  Prairie"  region  in  Washington  are  still 
given  chiefly  to  wheat  growing.  Here  combined  harvesters  and 
threshers  enter  the  fields  of  standing  wheat  and  when  they  leave 


FRUIT  RAISING  AND   MINING  487 

the  grain  is  piled  in  sacks.  In  the  Pacific  Northwest — Oregon 
and  Washington  —  a  few  great  steam-driven  saw-mills  with 
improved  machinery  do  the  work  that  was  formerly  done  by 
a  multitude  of  small  saw-mills  built  by  the  sides  of  streams. 
The  Pacific" states  have  other  resources.  Multitudes  are  drawn 
to  them  by  the  mild,  sunny  climate  and  beautiful  scenery. 

The  earliest  settlers  occupied  lands  on  the  coast,  and  in 
the  adjacent  valleys.  The  late  comers  settled  farther  east, 
and  the  frontier  Une  moved  steadily  eastward  toward  the 
Cascade  Mountains  and  the  desert  barriers.  Some  grazing 
land  and  irrigated  patches  exist  along  the  eastern  border  of 
each  of  the  Pacific  states,  but  most  of  the  region  still  in- 
cludes vast  stretches  of  undeveloped  land. 

Mining  Camps  in  the  West.  —  Long  after  the  great  dis- 
coveries of  gold  and  silver  in  Calif  ornia,  Colorado,  and  Nevada, 
these,  as  well  as  many  other  metals,  were  found  elsewhere  in 
the  mountain  region.  Prospectors,  pioneers  with  another 
name,  searched  everywhere  for  minerals.  The  settlement 
of  Idaho,  Montana,  and  Wyoming  began  in  the  mining  camps. 

Such  camps  were  wretched  villages  —  a  general  store,  a 
saloon,  and  a  row  of  rude  one-story  huts  on  a  winding  street 
in  a  mountain  valley,  usually  remote  from  a  railroad  and 
the  outside  world.  They  were  lonely  and  desolate  when  the 
gold  seekers  were  away,  but  all  excitement  if  they  returned 
successful.  It  was  a  hard  Hfe  and  few  men  succeeded.  Young 
men  made  up  most  of  the  inhabitants,  and  they  usually  left 
when  the  first  wild  gold-fever  passed.  The  fortunate  few 
remained  to  work  in  the  mines.  Some  who  went  to  mine 
stayed  to  trade  and  farm.  Numberless  mining  camps  became 
thriving  villages  and  cities.  Railroads  were  built  to  them. 
The  printing-press,  the  church,  the  school,  and  the  library 
came  in  time.  Then  real  pioneers  took  the  place  of  the  rough, 
boisterous  prospectors. 

Conquering  the  Last  Barrier.  —  Great  progress  has  been 


488 


THE  LAST  BARRIERS 


Arid  Land  before  Irrigation 


made  in  overcoming  another  barrier  to  settlement  in  the 
mountain  plateau  of  the  West.  Millions  of  acres  of  land  in 
Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  other  states  are 
fit  only  for  grazing  unless  water  is  carried  to  them.  In  some 
places  farmers  dug  artesian  wells  or  tapped  a  mountain  stream 
to  obtain  water  for  the  fields.  States  also  built  canals  to  con- 
^,„r^,^  vey  water.  Such 

work  is  called 
irrigation.  The 
Mormons  of 
Utah  were  the 
pioneers  of  the 
United  States  in 
turning  a  part 
of  the  water  in 
the  mountain 
streams  toward 
the  farm  lands. 
Since  1902  the 
United  States 
has  been  helping 
the  mountain 
states.  Great 
lakes  have  been 
made  by  dam- 
ming up  rivers.  Canals  distribute  the  water  thus  stored  when 
wanted  in  the  valleys  below.  The  money  obtained  for  the  pub- 
He  lands  and  the  water  privileges  is  again  put  into  new  irri- 
gation works.  The  land  in  small  lots  is  almost  given  to  the 
settler.  The  water  is  sold  to  him  at  cost.  Great  reservoirs 
between  the  mountains  are  being  rapidly  formed.  The  dams 
are  built  as  solid  as  the  brick  and  stone  work  of  the  Romans. 
The  mammoth  Roosevelt  dam,  on  Salt  River  in  Arizona, 
suppHes  water  for  thousands  of  farms.     Another  on  the  Rio 


The  Same  Land  after  Irrigation 


IRRIGATION 


489 


Grande  forms  a  lake  forty  miles  long  and  from  one  to  ten 
miles  wide.  New  Mexico  alone,  which  Coronado  declared 
worthless,  will  soon  have  an  area  of  irrigated  lands  equal 
to  the  entire  states  of  Delaware  and  Rhode  Island. 

An  irrigated  farm  is  different  from  others.  The  owner 
controls   the 

supply    of  ^.=*^---^ 

water  and 
hastens  or 
delays  the 
planting  or 
ripening  of 
his  crop  at 
will.  The 
soil  is  deep 
and  rich. 
The  endless 
sunshine  and 
mild  cHmate 
make    every 

season  a  harvest  season  of  some  kind.  The  high  dams  supply 
water  power,  making  electricity  for  the  towns,  the  mines,  and 
the  farms.  All  the  comforts  of  the  city  are  found.  Men  are 
learning  to  accompHsh  the  marvel  of  making  the  American 
deserts  bring  forth  bountiful  harvests.  Writers  of  geography 
no  longer  write  the  words  ''  the  Great  American  Desert "  across 
the  far  West.  The  government  of  the  United  States  already 
looks  forward  to  the  time  when  20,000,000  people  will  Hve 
on  these  farms  created  in  the  desert. 

To  make  sure  of  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  it  is  necessary  to 
care  for  the  forests  which  clothe  the  slopes  of  the  mountains. 
If  they  are  cut  down,  the  streams  will  be  dry  most  of  the 
year,  while  at  other  times  they  will  rush  down,  swollen  far 
beyond  their  banks,  and  sweep  everything  before  them.    For 


The  Roosevelt  Dam 


490  THE  LAST  BARRIERS 

this  reason  the  national  government  began  in  1891  to  set 
apart  millions  of  acres  of  public  forest  land,  placing  the  trees 
under  the  care  of  foresters,  men  who  have  studied  how  to 
protect  trees.  The  foresters  also  plant  new  trees  where  these 
are  needed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  had  the  United  States  dealt  with  the  Indians  in  the  past?  What 
plan  was  finally  adopted?  What  was  done  with  the  land  composing  the  Indian 
reservations  ? 

2.  Why  was  Oklahoma  settled  so  rapidly?  Who  formed  the  main  body  of 
settlers  in  Oklahoma?  What  two  states  were  formed  in  191 2?  How  many 
states  now  compose  the  Union? 

3.  What  progress  did  the  westward  movement  in  Canada  make  in  this 
period?     Who  were  the  settlers? 

4.  What  valuable  resources  have  been  discovered  in  Alaska?  What  cities 
have  profited  from  the  Alaskan  trade? 

5.  What  changes  have  taken  place  in  California  since  the  days  of  the  Span- 
iards?    What  are  the  main  occupations  of  the  people  on  the  Pacific  coast? 

6.  Who  were  the  pioneers  in  the  western  mountains?  Describe  a  mining 
camp. 

7.  How  is  the  last  western  barrier  to  settlement  being  overcome?  Describe 
an  irrigation  system. 

8.  What  is  the  work  of  the  national  foresters? 


EXERCISES 

1.  Compare  the  ideas  of  Alaska  in  1867  with  those  held  at  the  present  day. 
See  page  448. 

2.  Review  the  Spanish  settlement  of  Cahfornia.     See  pages  226-227. 

3.  Why  was  the  settlement  of  the  Pacific  coast  states  really  an  eastward 
instead  of  a  westward  movement? 

4.  What  two  barriers  to  settlement,  finally  removed,  are  discussed  in  this 
chapter? 

Important  Date : 

1902.     The  United  States  begins  building  irrigation  works  in  the  Far  West, 
and  thus  opens  a  new  frontier  to  settlement. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
LABORERS  OF  A  GREAT  NATION 

Growth  of  Cities.  —  The  change  in  the  methods  of  work 
has  led,  even  more  than  before,  during  the  last  twenty  or 
thirty  years  to  the  rapid  growth  of  cities.  The  development 
of  great  railroad  systems  has  had  a  similar  effect.  The  cen- 
ters from  which  they  branch  out  in  many  directions  serve  as 
markets  from  which  products  of  all  sorts  are  forwarded  to  the 
smaller  towns  and  villages  of  whole  regions.  Some  of  the 
cities  are  also  ports  on  lake  or  sea,  from  which  goods  are 
carried  by  steamship  to  other  ports  of  the  United  States  or 
to  Europe,  South  America,  Asia,  or  Africa. 

For  many  years  after  the  Republic  was  founded,  the  great 
majority  of  the  people  lived  in  the  country  on  farms.  This 
is  still  true  in  the  South  and  some  parts  of  the  West,  but  in 
the  older  states  the  majority  now  live  in  the  cities.  One- 
tenth  of  the  entire  population  of  the  United  States  dwell  in  the 
cities  of  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Philadelphia.  Nearly  one- 
fourth  hve  in  cities  with  a  population  of  100,000  or  more. 

The  Newest  Immigrants.  —  Immigrants  now  usually  settle 
in  the  cities,  while  formerly  they  settled  on  farm  lands  near 
the  frontier.  The  great  demand  for  laborers  in  the  cities  has 
attracted  them.  Indeed,  the  rapid  growth  of  manufacturing 
in  recent  years  would  have  been  impossible  without  the  help 
of  newcomers  from  Europe.  Many  immigrants  also  go  to 
the  principal  mining  regions. 

The  number  of  immigrants  has  increased  very  rapidly 
since  the  Civil  War,  but  especially  since  1880.     It  has  been 


492 


LABORERS  OF  A  GREAT  NATION 


Village  of  the  Region  from  which  the  Later 
Immigrants  are  Coming 


more  than  half  a  miUion  a  year,  and  some  years  more  than  a 
million.  The  total  population  in  the  United  States  in  1790 
was  a  little  less  than  four  million  people.  Now  as  many  peo- 
ple enter  the  United  States  every  four  years.    More  come  in  a 

single  year  than 
came  in  the  en- 
tire period  from 
the  founding  of 
Jamestown  t  o 
the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution. 
Enough  immi- 
grants arrived  in 
1907  to  people 
a  state  as  large 
as  Connecticut 
or  Nebraska. 

Immigrants  from  Eastern  Europe.  —  Before  1880  four- 
fifths  of  the  immigrants  came  from  the  British  Isles  and  north- 
western Europe.  Since  that  time  the  immigrants  from  these 
regions  have  decreased,  while  others  from  southern  and  east- 
ern Europe  have  greatly  increased.  In  1882  the  entrance 
of  Chinese  laborers  was  forbidden;  in  1907,  by  a  treaty  with 
Japan,  this  rule  was  extended  to  Japanese  laborers.  Few  of 
either  of  these  races  have  been  able  to  enter  the  United  States. 
It  is  the  Italians,  Albanians,  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Servians, 
Magyars,  Poles,  Bohemians,  and  Lithuanians  who  have  been 
coming  lately  in  the  largest  numbers.  Their  homes  are  on 
the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Danube  and  the  Volga.  They  are  mostly  rugged  peasants, 
and  they  take  up  the  hardest  work  in  the  United  States. 
To  them  America  is  as  much  the  Land  of  Promise  as  it 
had  been  at  an  earlier  period  to  the  Puritan,  the  Scotch,  the 
Irish,  and  the  Germans. 


THE  NEWEST  IMMIGRANTS 


493 


Many  of  the  recent  immigrants  come  from  regions  where 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  once  lived  and  where  ruins 
of  their  great  and  beautiful  buildings  still  remain.  They  love 
painting,  sculpture,  and  music.  The  Slavs,  also,  are  lovers  of 
music.  Some  of  the  immigrants  have  become  leaders  in 
orchestras  and  musical  societies.  Like  the  Germans  before 
them,  they  have  helped  in  spreading  the  love  of  music  and 
other  arts  in  the  United  States. 


Where  the  Immigrants  go  to  Live  in  the  United  States 

The  greater  number  of  the  foreign-bom  live  in  congested 
quarters  in  the  large  cities 


The  Crowded  Tenements. — Both  the  immigrants  and  the 
native  Americans  who  have  moved  to  the  factory  districts 
of  the  cities  have  been  obliged  to  change  their  former 
mode  of  life.  It  is  necessary  for  them  to  settle  near  the 
places  where  they  work,  often  in  crowded,  smoky,  dismal 
spots.  Cheap  tenement  houses  have  been  built  for  them. 
The  laborer's  place  of  work  is  commonly  more  grimy  and 
cheerless  still.  In  the  mines  and  mills  his  work  was  done 
often  amid  great  dangers  from  explosions  of  gases  or  from 
unguarded  machinery. 

Organization  of  the  Laborers.  —  As  the  business  of  manu- 
facturing or  managing  railroads  was  gradually  organized  in 
great  corporations  or  "trusts,"  so  laborers  of  all  sorts  were 


494  LABORERS  OF  A  GREAT  NATION 

organized.  Small  trade  societies  or  unions  had  been  common 
for  many  years.  When  prices  rose  during  the  Civil  War,  the 
laborers  united  in  order  to  attempt  to  raise  wages.  Besides, 
the  growth  of  manufactures,  bringing  together  in  the  same 
industry,  often  in  the  same  town,  large  bodies  of  laborers, 
made  the  formation  of  unions  easier.  The  printers,  the 
locomotive  engineers,  the  cigar  makers,  the  bricklayers,  and 
the  carpenters  were  among  the  first  to  form  large  organiza- 
tions of  all  workers  in  the  United  States.  Others  rapidly 
followed  their  example. 

On  Thanksgiving  day,  1869,  a  group  of  garment  cutters  in 
Philadelphia  started  a  plan  to  unite  all  laborers  into  one  body 
without  regard  to  their  particular  kind  of  work.  A  powerful 
organization,  called  the  Knights  of  Labor,  grew  from  these 
small  beginnings.  A  few  years  later,  in  1881,  another  combi- 
nation was  formed,  called  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 
It  united  as  many  as  possible  of  the  labor  unions  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  into  one  body.  Joined  by  a  multitude  of 
local  city  unions,  state  and  national  federations,  and  special 
organizations,  it  finally  outnumbered  the  Knights  of  Labor. 
In  addition  to  such  organizations,  the  workers  in  many 
industries  are  separately  combined  in  unions,  like  the  Brother- 
hood of  Locomotive  Engineers,  the  Order  of  Railway  Con- 
ductors, the  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Firemen,  and  of 
Railway  Trainmen. 

Objects  of  the  Laborers*  Unions.  —  The  laborers  have 
united  to  advance  their  own  interests.  This  usually  means 
to  better  their  surroundings  while  working,  secure  higher 
wages,  and  shorten  the  hours  of  work.  Many  of  their  demands 
appeared  so  reasonable  that  they  were  supported  by  other 
people  in  the  community.  Wise  railroad  managers,  manu- 
facturers, and  business  men  generally  became  eager  to  improve 
the  situation.  The  result  is  that  the  conditions  imder  which 
work  is  done  have  changed  for  the  better.     For  example,  the 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  LABORERS     495 

hours  of  work  a  hundred  years  ago  were  from  "  sunrise  to 
sunset,"  In  the  early  factories  employees  worked  14  or  15 
hours,  part  of  the  time  by  candle-light.  About  1840  some 
trades  reduced  the  hours  to  ten.  In  many  trades  the  hours 
are  now  eight  or  nine.  The  average  length  of  the  working- 
day  for  all  is  only  a  little  over  nine. 

Memorable  Strikes.  —  Formerly  when  the  laborers  were 
discontented  with  the  wages  or  conditions  of  their  work,  they 
could  go  to  the  frontier  and  take  up  land.  As  the  pubHc 
lands  gave  out,  laborers  turned  more  and  more  to  another 
way  of  bettering  wages  and  shortening  hours.  This  was  by 
the  strike.  The  men  in  a  single  factory  or  mill  or  railroad 
stopped  work.  Sometimes  they  were  able  to  induce  the 
workers  in  other  occupations  to  join  them.  Since  1877 
hundreds  of  strikes  have  occurred  in  the  United  States  every 
year.  Some  of  them  have  brought  on  battles  between  the 
laborers  and  the  employers. 

In  1877  a  railroad  reduced  the  wages  of  its  men.  It  had  done 
so  several  times.  On  this  occasion  the  employees  abandoned 
their  trains,  and  tried  to  prevent  others  from  running  them. 
The  strike  spread  to  other  railroads,  and  soon  covered  many 
of  the  railroads  in  fourteen  states.  At  several  places  con- 
flicts occurred  between  the  strikers  and  the  soldiers  sent  by 
the  state  to  keep  order.  Twenty-two  were  killed  in  one  of 
these  battles.  Pittsburgh  suffered  the  most  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  cars,  depots,  and  freight,  and  in  the  loss  of  life.  The 
city  barely  escaped  a  terrible  fire  during  the  struggle  between 
the  angry  forces.  This  was  the  first  great  strike  in  American 
history. 

An  even  greater  strike  broke  out  in  June,  1894,  in  the  Pull- 
man Car  Company's  shops  in  Chicago.  The  company  had 
reduced  the  wages  unjustly,  as  the  laborers  felt.  They 
had  other  grievances  against  the  company.  For  one  thing, 
the  Pullman   Company  was   the   landlord,   owning  all   the 


496  LABORERS  OF  A  GREAT  NATION 

houses  of  the  town  in  which  the  laborers  Hved.  The  people 
disliked  being  both  tenants  and  employees  of  the  same  com- 
pany. The  strike  which  followed  was  long.  The  company 
steadily  refused  to  arbitrate  its  differences  with  the  men. 
Efforts  were  made  to  boycott  all  railroads  using  Pullman  cars. 
The  strike  spread.  The  railroad  men  joined  the  strikers. 
The  western  Knights  of  Labor  also  struck,  out  of  sympathy 
with  the  Pullman  employees.  Business  almost  came  to  a 
standstill  as  far  west  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  President 
Cleveland  sent  United  States  soldiers  to  Chicago  with  orders 
to  stop  the  interference  with  the  railroads,  partly  because  the 
trains  carried  the  mails.  Another  reason  was  that  the  strike 
interfered  with  the  welfare  of  people  in  no  way  interested  in 
the  original  strike. 

The  federal  courts  aided  the  President  by  issuing  ''blanket 
injunctions."  By  these  all  men  were  warned  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  railroads.  Those  who  disobeyed  were  arrested, 
taken  before  a  judge,  and  were  tried  by  him,  without  the  right 
to  have  the  testimony  heard  by  a  jury  as  in  ordinary 
cases. 

The  loss  of  property  was  immense.  If  the  value  of  the 
property  destroyed  and  the  loss  of  profits  and  wages  be  added, 
the  amount  would  be  about  $80,000,000.  Although  few 
strikes  have  been  as  destructive,  the  total  losses  from  them 
each  year  are  very  large.  Fortunately,  it  is  becoming  more 
common  to  lay  the  demands  of  the  employees,  especially  of 
railroads  or  coal  mines,  and  the  claims  of  their  employers, 
before  fair-minded  men  on  ''Boards  of  Arbitration"  or 
"Boards  of  Concihation."  When  this  is  done,  each  side 
agrees  to  accept  the  decision  of  the  board. 

Employers'  Associations.  —  The  organization  of  strong 
labor  unions  led  to  the  formation  of  employers'  associations 
to  resist  the  demands  of  the  employees.  Local  manufacturers 
have,  like  their  employees,  formed  local  unions  or  associations. 


WELFARE  WORK  AND  COOPERATION    497 

Owners  in  the  same  business  have  formed  great  national 
employers'  associations.  In  1875  the  United  States  potters 
formed  an  association.  A  few  years  later  the  stove  manu- 
facturers united  into  the  Stove  Founders*  National  Defence 
Association.  Many  others  have  been  formed.  In  1893  a 
National  Association  of  Manufacturers  was  organized,  which, 
like  the  Knights  of  Labor,  included  men  from  different  parts 
of  the  country.  In  1903  appeared  the  Citizens'  Industrial 
Association.  National,  district,  and  local  employers'  associa- 
tions united  to  form  this,  as  different  labor  organizations 
united  to  form  the  American  Federation  of  Labor.  One 
object  of  unions  of  employers  has  been  to  make  ''collective" 
bargains  about  wages  with  all  the  employees  in  their  partic- 
ular industry.  If  the  employees  in  the  trade  should  strike, 
all  the  employers  would  stand  together  in  the  struggle. 

Welfare  Work.  —  Some  manufacturers  and  business  men 
have  been  more  eager  to  better  the  condition  of  their  em- 
ployees than  to  resist  their  demands.  They  have  provided 
night  schools,  kindergartens,  and  nurseries.  Others  have 
provided  amusement  parks,  and  pubKc  baths,  and  have  built 
model  factories.  Sometimes  the  idea  is  simply  that  men 
will  work  better  if  they  are  comfortable,  and  that  the 
profits  of  the  business  will  be  increased.  But  "  welfare  work  " 
has  often  been  due  to  a  real  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
employees  and  a  desire  to  increase  their  opportunities  of 
self -de  velopment . 

Cooperation  in  Work.  —  Employees  and  employers  have 
not  been  the  only  classes  to  work  together  for  their  own  good. 
In  many  parts  of  the  United  States  the  farmers  or  fruit 
growers  have  united  to  sell  their  products.  In  1867  an 
organization  called  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry  was  formed  to 
make  farming  a  pleasanter  and  more  profitable  occupation. 
It  was  commonly  called  the  Granger  movement,  from  the 
grange  or  local  society.     Local,  district,   state,  and  national 


498  LABORERS  OF  A   GREAT  NATION 

organizations  were  formed  similar  to  the  labor  unions.  An- 
other organization  of  farmers,  started  a  few  years  later,  grew 
about  1887  iiito  the  National  Farmers'  Alliance.  These 
organizations  have  formed  cooperative  stores,  creameries, 
elevators,  and  warehouses.  They  have  done  a  great  work 
in  teaching  the  farmers  how  to  help  themselves  and  in  bring- 
ing them  together  for  their  social  welfare.  Some  of  the 
organizations  have  estabHshed  libraries,  reading  courses, 
lyceums,  and  local  institutes  or  clubs  for  the  study  of 
questions  in  which  they  were  especially  interested.  In  such 
ways  they  have  taken  part  in  the  educational  movement  of 
the  time. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  have  cities  grown  rapidly  in  late  years?  Where  are  the  majority 
of  the  people  in  the  older  states  living? 

2.  Where  do  the  immigrants  usually  settle?  From  what  parts  of  Europe 
do  they  come?  What  classes  of  laborers  are  excluded?  With  what  kind  of  work 
do  the  immigrants  generally  start  in  the  United  States?  What  valuable  skill 
and  taste  do  they  bring  to  America? 

3.  Why  do  so  many  people  live  in  dismal  tenements  in  crowded  parts 
of  cities? 

4.  What  is  a  labor  union?  Why  did  the  laborers  form  such  societies? 
Describe  the  larger  organizations  which  the  laborers  have  formed. 

5.  What  change  has  taken  place  in  the  length  of  the  working  day?  What 
did  laborers  formerly  do  when  discontented  with  their  wages  or  conditions  of 
work?  What  have  they  done  in  recent  years?  Tell  the  story  of  one  strike, 
either  one  described  in  the  text  or  one  that  has  occurred  in  the  neighborhood? 

6.  What  method  has  been  used  frequently  to  settle  differences  between  the 
laborers  and  employers  without  striking? 

7.  What  step  have  the  employers  taken  to  combat  the  demands  of  the  labor 
unions?     Name  some  of  the  Employers'  Associations  which  have  been  formed. 

8.  Describe  "welfare  work." 

9.  In  what  work  mentioned  in  the  text  have  people  begun  to  cooperate  or 
unite  either  for  buying  or  selling  ? 

EXERCISES 

I.  Members  of  the  class  should  gather  information  from  their  parents  or 
friends  wherever  possible  on  (i)  the  wages  in  Europe  when  they  left,  (2)  wages 


QUESTIONS  AND   EXERCISES 


499 


they  found  paid  in  the  United  States,  and  (3)  the  change  which  took  place  in 
the  work  of  each  in  moving  from  Europe  to  the  United  States. 

2.  Is  anything  done  in  the  local  factories  or  mills  that  may  be  called  "  welfare 
work"?  Visit  some  factory  to  see  the  conditions  under  which  the  laborers 
work. 

3.  Describe  any  case  of  cooperation  either  in  buying  or  selling  of  which  the 
members  of  the  class  know.     Were  the  results  successful? 


The  Immigrant  Station  at  Ellis  Island  in  New  York  Harbor 


CHAPTER  XLV 

NEW  METHODS  OF  GOVERNMENT 

To  the  Victors  belong  the  Spoils.  —  Soon  after  the  Civil 
War  the  American  people  were  startled  with  stories  of  the  dis- 
honesty of  public  officials,  especially  in  the  large  cities.  The 
citizens  had  been  so  occupied  with  building  factories,  laying 
railroads,  sinking  mines,  forming  companies  for  trade,  and  in 
settHng  the  West,  that  they  had  not  watched  officials  care- 
fully. Two  harmful  ideas  about  government,  dating  from 
Jackson's  time,  still  prevailed.  One  was  that  any  citizen  was 
capable  of  holding  office.  The  other  was  that  the  victorious 
poHtical  party  might  put  out  of  office  all  its  opponents  and 
fill  their  places  with  its  own  members.  The  party  leaders 
regarded  offices  as  "spoils"  which  belonged  to  the  victors  in 
the  elections.  The  result  was  that  every  new  mayor  or 
governor  or  president  changed  all  the  office-holders  under 
him  down  to  the  clerks  and  errand  boys.  The  task  of  dividing 
offices  as  rewards  and  favors  among  friends  and  party  workers 
kept  the  best  pubhc  officers  busy  when  other  things  needed 
attention.  Lincoln,  besieged  by  office-seekers  at  the  opening 
of  the  Civil  War,  declared  that  he  seemed  "hke  one  sitting  in 
a  palace,  assigning  apartments  to  importunate  appHcants, 
while  the  structure  is  on  fire  and  likely  soon  to  perish  in 
ashes."     Matters  had  not  improved  since  his  day. 

Political  Bosses. — Party  managers,  "poHtical  bosses"  they 
were  generally  called,  often  managed  the  affairs  of  govern- 
ment to  suit  themselves.     State  legislatures  and  city  councils 


CIVIL   SERVICE  REFORM 


501 


mo^tiHiftonammi 


'TWA5  J4IM. 


did  as  they  ordered.  When  purchases  were  made  or  streets 
opened  or  buildings  constructed,  the  state  or  city  was  charged 
prices  higher  than  those  charged  to  private  individuals  for 
similar  things,  and  the  difference  was  divided  between  the 
sellers  and  the  officials.  This  method  has  been  named  "  graft.  "^ 
A  group  of  such  "grafters,"  called  at  the  time  a  "ring,"  led 
by  WilHam  M.  Tweed, 
stole  $ioo,cxx),ooo  from 
New  York  City  in  three 
years.  They  paid  a 
plasterer  $3,000,000  for 
work  they  said  he  had 
done.  As  they  alone 
kept  the  city  accounts, 
no  one  could  tell  how 
they  had  used  the 
money  raised  by  taxa- 
tion. In  1 87 1  the 
thefts  of  the  Tweed 
Ring  were  discovered  and  some  of  the  band  were  punished. 
Such  stories  aroused  the  people. 

Civil  Service  Reform.  —  A  remedy  for  dishonesty  and  mis- 
management was  urged.  Part  of  the  officials  were  elected, 
but  the  larger  number  were  appointed  by  the  president  or  the 
governor  or  the  mayor.  It  seemed  clear  that  those  officials 
who  were  appointed  should  be  chosen  solely  because  they 
were  capable  of  doing  their  work  well.  The  reformers  argued 
that  their  fitness  could  be  determined  best  by  an  examination 
in  which  all  candidates  were  asked  the  same  questions.  This 
new  method  of  selecting  men  went  by  the  name  of  "civil 
service    reform,"   or    the    "merit    system."     Several    men, 

1  The  farmer  grafts  upon  a  branch  of  one  tree  a  twig  coming  from 
another.  So  the  dishonest  official  adds  to  the  expense  of  a  piece  of  work 
money  for  himself. 


The  "Tweed  Ring" 
From  a  cartoon  by  Nast 


502 


NEW  METHODS  OF   GOVERNMENT 


James  A.  Garfield 


among  them  Congressman  Thomas  Jenckes  of  Rhode  Island, 
George  WilHam  Curtis,  editor  of  Harper's  Weekly,  and  Sena- 
tor Carl  Schurz  of  Missouri,  worked  many  years  for  the 
reform.    Grant  favored  their  plan  and  urged  it  in  his  messages. 

But  Congress  did  not  wish  to  lose 
the  influence  that  the  old  system  of 
appointment  gave  it,  and  Httle  prog- 
ress was  made  in  Grant's  time. 
His  successor,  President  Hayes,  and 
the  next  President,  James  A.  Gar- 
field, were  also  anxious  to  bring 
about  the  change. 

In  1 88 1,  a  few  months  after 
Garfield  became  President,  a  disap- 
pointed office-seeker  assassinated 
him.  This  event  showed  one  dan- 
ger of  the  spoils  system.  It  moved 
the  people,  and,  finally,  Congress  to  action.  In  1883  a  long  step 
was  taken  by  giving  to  three  Civil  Service  Commissioners  the 
duty  of  holding  examinations  to  test  the  fitness  of  candidates 
for  certain  offices.  The  plan  appKed  chiefly  to  clerkships 
in  Washington,  but  it  has  been  slowly  extended.  Nearly 
every  President  since  1883  has  increased  the  number  of 
government  officials  who  must  pass  an  examination.  More 
than  two-thirds  of  the  positions  under  the  United  States 
Government  were  by  191 2  filled  in  this  way.  The  successful 
candidates  are  expected  to  hold  the  office  permanently,  or 
until  they  are  promoted.  In  19 10  President  Taft  urged 
that  the  ''merit  system"  be  extended  to  all  postmasterships 
and  to  all  offices  in  the  diplomatic  and  consular  service. 
Seven  years  later  President  Wilson  adopted  the  reform  for 
the  postmasterships,  putting  about  10,000  postmasters  under 
civil  service  rules.  The  same  plan  has  been  slowly  applied 
in  filling  state  and  city  offices.  New  York  was  the  first  state 
to  adopt  it,  making  the  change  in  the  same  year  that  the 


THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES  503 

national  government  began  it;  Philadelphia  was  the  first 
city  to  introduce  it. 

Mismanaging  American  Cities.  —  In  spite  of  such  attempts 
to  place  competent  men  in  office,  Americans  have  found  it 
difficult  to  secure  honest  city  government.  They  have  often 
excused  their  failures  on  the  ground  that  their  cities  have 
grown  with  great  rapidity.  EngKsh  and  German  cities, 
however,  have  grown  with  equal  rapidity  and  are  well  man- 
aged. The  reasons  of  American  failure  have  been  of  two 
kinds.  The  principal  one  is  that  citizens  have  been  more 
interested  in  their  business  than  in  their  government.  The 
other  is  that  many  cities  have  been  organized  in  such  clumsy 
fashion  that  honest  officials  have  had  a  hard  task  to  manage 
their  affairs  well. 

Changes  in  City  Government.  —  The  cities  have  borrowed 
parts  of  their  organization  from  the  national  or  state  govern- 
ments. Instead  of  a  governor  or  president  they  have  a  mayor; 
instead  of  a  legislature  or  congress  they  have  a  council. 
The  council,  like  the  state  legislature  and  the  national  Con- 
gress, was  commonly  made  up  of  two  bodies.  One  body  was 
supposed  to  correct  the  mistakes  of  the  other. 

Most  cities  have  abolished  one  of  the  bodies,  concluding 
that  two  did  more  harm  than  good.  New  York  City  made 
the  change  in  1873.  Many  towns  as  they  grew  into  large 
cities  adopted  newer  and  simpler  forms  of  government.  In 
recent  years  some  have  gone  much  farther,  replacing  mayor 
and  council  by  a  small  commission  or  board. 

Galveston  was  the  first  city  to  try  the  commission  plan. 
When  a  large  part  of  it  was  wrecked  by  a  great  storm  which 
swept  over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  1900,  the  officials  seemed 
helpless.  The  city  needed  better  leadership.  Several  prom- 
inent men  asked  the  state  legislature  to  entrust  the  affairs  of 
Galveston  to  a  board  or  commission  of  five  men.  The  legis- 
lature consented  and  a  commission  was  chosen.     One  of  the 


504  NEW  METHODS   OF   GOVERNMENT 

commissioners  was  called  the  mayor.  The  new  government 
accomplished  such  wonders  that  other  cities  adopted  the 
plan.  By  the  end  of  191 6,  nearly  500  cities  had  introduced 
commission  government.  Large  cities  like  St.  Paul  and 
New  Orleans  are  among  the  number.  In  some  places  —  for 
example,  Staunton,  Virginia  —  the  council  or  commissioners 
hired  a  city  manager.^ 

The  Short  Ballot.  —  The  plan  of  governing  cities  by  small 
commissions  has  reduced  the  number  of  officials  whom  the 
voter  must  choose.  The  same  result  has  been  gained  by 
entrusting  to  the  mayor  the  appointment  of  the  important 
officials,  who  form  his  ''  cabinet"  and  who  manage  the  different 
departments  of  the  city.  The  citizen  in  that  case  knows 
whom  to  blame  or  to  praise. 

In  many  state  and  local  elections  the  voter  has  been  obHged 
to  choose  his  Hst  of  officials  from  among  over  100  names  on 
what  is  called  a  ''blanket"  ballot.  This  has  given  reason  to 
the  cry  for  the  "short  ballot,"  in  order  that  the  voter  may 
make  fewer  and  more  intelHgent  choices. 

Direct  Primaries.  —  About  1889  another  reform  was  begun, 
first  in  the  South  and  West.  The  people  had  grown  tired  of 
the  way  the  party  managers  controlled  conventions,^  leaving 
the  citizen  no  choice  but  to  vote  for  men  whom  the  managers 
selected.  Calhoun  had  said  this  would  be  the  outcome  when 
the  convention  system  was  first  adopted.  The  southern  and 
western  states  provided  a  system  of  primaries,  at  which  the 
people  had  the  right  to  nominate  the  candidates  for  elec- 
tion. The  primaries  took  the  place  of  the  conventions.  The 
system  has  varied  considerably  from  state  to  state.  The  poHt- 
ical  parties  often  held  their  primaries  at  the  same  time.  In 
some  places  if  the  candidate  receives  a  majority  of  all  the 
votes  at  the  primary,  no  further  voting  at  a  regular  election 
is  necessary.  In  others  the  voter  is  allowed  to  give  both  his 
1  Staunton  adopted  the  plan  in  1908.  ^  See  page  325. 


RECENT  CHANGES  IN  GOVERNMENT  505 

first  and  second  choice  in  the  primaries  as  well  as  in  the  final 
election.    This  is  called  preferential  voting.^ 

Initiative  and  Referendum.  —  Another  reform  found  popu- 
lar favor  in  the  western  states  where  the  railroads  had  often 
controlled  the  members  of  the  state  legislatures.  In  1898 
South  Dakota  adopted  the  "Initiative  and  Referendum."^ 
By  means  of  the  Initiative,  if  a  certain  part  or  fraction  of  the 
voters  proposes  a  law,  the  legislature  must  consider  it.  If 
the  legislature  refuses  to  adopt  it,  it  may  then  be  submitted 
to  the  entire  body  of  voters  at  an  election.  By  the  Referen- 
dum, if  a  certain  number  of  the  voters  demand,  laws  which 
the  legislature  has  just  passed  must  also  be  laid  before  the 
voters  for  approval  or  rejection.  Such  a  plan  makes  attempts 
to  control  or  bribe  a  legislature  unprofitable.  It  also  enables 
the  voters  to  have  a  part  in  lawmaking.  The  new  system 
has  moved  slowly  eastward  into  several  of  the  older 
states.^ 

The  Recall.  —  Still  another  plan  to  give  citizens  a  more 
direct  control  of  their  officials  is  the  "Recall."  It  was  first 
adopted  in  the  city  of  Los  Angeles.  According  to  this  plan 
the  citizens,  upon  petition  of  a  certain  number  of  them,  are 
required  to  decide  at  an  election  whether  an  official's  term 
should  be  ended  earlier  than  at  the  close  of  the  period  for 

^  By  1 9 16  laws  provided  direct  primaries  for  nomination  of  candidates  in 
42  out  of  48  states  in  the  Union.  Preferential  voting  has  been  adopted  in  21 
states. 

2  South  Dakota  was  merely  the  first  state  to  adopt  these  as  a  regular  part 
of  the  mode  of  making  laws.  The  Initiative  and  Referendum  had  long  been 
known  and  frequently  used  in  other  states  for  special  purposes.  This  was 
especially  true  of  the  Referendum,  which  was  regularly  used  for  the  ratification 
of  constitutions.     Both  were  part  of  the  Swiss  system  of  government. 

3  By  1 91 6  the  Initiative  and  Referendum  were  employed  in  20  states.  South 
Dakota  adopted  the  system  in  1898,  Utah  in  1900,  Oregon  in  1902,  Nevada  in 
1904  (part),  Montana  in  1906,  Oklahoma  in  1907,  Main  in  1908,  Missouri  in 
1909,  Arkansas  and  Colorado  in  19I0,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  California 
in  1911,  Ohio  in  1912,  etc. 


5o6  NEW  METHODS  OF   GOVERNMENT 

which  he  was  originally  chosen.^  Many  cities  have  followed 
the  example  of  Los  Angeles  when  they  have  remodeled  their 
methods  of  government.  Oregon  adopted  the  Recall  for  state 
officials  in  1908.  The  Recall,  Hke  impeachment,  has  seldom 
been  used.  It  goes  much  farther  than  the  method  of  im- 
peachment, threatening  the  unpopular  official,  while  impeach- 
ment threatens  only  the  officials  guilty  of  "high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors."  ^ 

Woman  Suffrage.  —  One  consequence  of  the  change  in 
the  methods  of  manufacturing,  replacing  household  indus- 
tries by  work  in  the  factory,  has  been  a  rapid  increase  in 
the  number  of  women  who  work  side  by  side  with  men. 
Women  have,  more  than  before,  taken  the  lead  in  the  great 
reforms  of  the  time.  Many  of  them  have  demanded  the  right 
to  vote  and  to  have  a  share  in  managing  the  affairs  of  city, 
state,  and  nation.  In  1869,  when  Wyoming  organized  its 
territorial  government,  women  were  included  among  the 
voters.  When  the  territory  became  a  state,  they  kept  the 
right  to  vote.  In  1893  Wyoming's  next  neighbor,  Colorado, 
adopted  the  same  plan.  By  191 7  more  than  one-third  of 
the  states  had  granted  the  privilege  of  voting  to  women .^ 

Direct  Election  of  Senators.  —  One  important  change  in 
government  applied  to  the  national  system.  Senators  had 
always  been  elected  by  the  state  legislatures.  Several  cases 
where  candidates  were  known  to  have  bribed  legislatures  to 
vote  for  them  aroused  much  opposition  to  the  old  way.  Be- 
sides, legislatures  often  spent  much  of  their  ordinary  session 
in  a  quarrel  over  who  should  represent  the  state  in  the  United 

1  The  Recall  like  the  Initiative  and  Referendum  had  long  been  in  regular 
use  in  Switzerland. 

2  By  1913  the  Recall  had  been  adopted  in  eight  states  and  many  cities. 

3  The  states  are  Wyoming  (1869),  Colorado  (1893),  Utah  (i8g6),  Idaho 
(1896),  Washington  (1910),  California  (1911),  Arizona,  Kansas,  Oregon  (all  in 
1912),  Illinois  (partial,  1913),  Montana  and  Nevada  (1914),  Indiana,  Michigan, 
North  Dakota,  Ohio,  and  Rhode  Island  (partial,  191 7). 


RECENT  CHANGES  IN  GOVERNMENT        507 

States  Senate.  In  19 13  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
took  away  from  the  legislatures  their  privilege  of  choosing 
senators  and  gave  it  to  the  people  of  the  states  in  their  regular 
fall  elections. 

City  Planning.  —  The  new  interest  in  the  management  of 
cities  has  shown  itself  in  other  ways  besides  methods  of 


The   Capitol  at  Washington 
The  Supreme  Court,  the  Senate,  and  the  House  of  Representatives  meet  in  the  Capitol 

government.  Many  Americans,  as  well  as  Europeans,  have 
ceased  to  look  upon  their  city  merely  as  a  very  large,  hap- 
hazard collection  of  houses,  clustered  about  factories,  stores, 
railroad  stations,  and  steamboat  wharves.  They  have  begun 
to  think  that  cities  should  be  planned  as  carefully  as  a  person 
plans  his  dwelKng.  They  argue  that  each  person,  however 
small  his  income,  should  have  a  share  of  sunlight  and  pure 
air,  and  should  be  able  to  go  rapidly  and  cheaply  to  his  place 
of  labor.  The  location  of  residences  and  factories,  of  large 
and  small  streets,  and  of  railway  lines,  should  be  planned 
carefully.  The  builder  of  one  house  should  not  be  allowed 
to  make  his  neighbor's  house  uncomfortable.     Parks,  play- 


5o8  NEW    METHODS    OF    GOVERNMENT 

grounds,  bath  houses,  and  social  halls  are  already  provided 
in  many  places.  The  citizens  are  beginning  to  work  together 
to  make  the  city  healthful  and  beautiful,  as  well  as  successful 
in  its  industries. 

Some  Interesting  Presidential  Elections.  —  The  Republican 
party  was  in  power  in  the  national  government  most  of  the 
time. from  the  Civil  War  to  1913.  At  the  close  of  Johnson's 
administration  in  1869  General  U.  S.  Grant  became  President. 
He  owed  his  election  to  the  feeling  in  the  North  that  next  to 
Lincoln  he  had  done  the  most  to  save  the  Union.  Some  of 
the  men  whom  ^he  chose  as  advisers  were  opposed  by  many 
of  their  own  party.  In  1872  these  discontented  Republicans 
broke  away  and  formed  the  Liberal  Republican  party.  They 
nominated  for  the  Presidency  Horace  Greeley,  editor  of  the 

New  York  Tribune.  Although 
he  was  also  supported  by  the 
Democrats,  he  was  badly  de- 
feated by  Grant,  who  was  the 
candidate  of  the  regular  Repub- 
licans. The  Republicans  were 
also  successful  in  the  elections  of 
1876  and  1880,  in  which  their 
candidates  were  Rutherford  B. 
Hayes  and  James  A.  Garfield. 
In  1884  the  Democrats  nomi- 
nated Grover  Cleveland.  He  had 
Grover  Cleveland  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  Buffalo  and  gov- 

ernor of  New  York.  In  these  offices  he  had  made  a  name  as 
one  who  paid  little  regard  to  politics  and  managed  public 
business  ''as  a  good  business  man  manages  his  private  con- 
cerns." The  independent  Republicans,  called  ''  Mugwumps," 
voted  for  Cleveland,  because  they  liked  his  work  as  a  reformer. 
They  distrusted  his  Republican  opponent,  James  G.  Blaine. 
Cleveland  was  elected,  and  the  country  had  a  Democratic 


PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTIONS 


509 


Benjamin  Harrison 


President  for  the  first  time  since  Buchanan.  Congress,  how- 
ever, was  divided.  The  RepubHcans  had  a  majority  in  the 
Senate.  A  Democratic  House  and  President  could  do  Httle 
with  the  Senate  against  them. 
In  1887  the  two  parties  agreed 
on  one  memorable  law,  the  In- 
terstate Commerce  Act.  By  it 
Congress  provided  for  a  com- 
mission of  five  members  which 
should  see  that  the  railroads 
carrying  goods  from  one  state  to 
another  treated  all  shippers  fair- 
ly. The  power  of  the  commis- 
sion was  enlarged  in  later  years. 
In  1888  the  RepubUcans  won 
the  election,  making  Benjamin 
Harrison  President.  Four  years  later  the  Democrats  re- 
elected Cleveland.     Whether  the  tariff  should  remain   high 

was  one  of  the  main  issues  in 
the  second  election.  Another 
was  whether  all  the  silver 
brought  to  the  government 
mint  should  be  coined  into 
silver  dollars  at  the  ratio  of  16 
silver  dollars  to  one  gold  dol- 
lar.^ The  hardest  contest  over 
such  questions  came  in  the 
election  of  1896.  The  Demo- 
crats put  forward  William  J. 
Bryan  of  Nebraska,  and  the 
RepubHcans  William  McKinley 
McKinley    won,    and    became    President    when 


William  McKinley 


of   Ohio 

Cleveland's  term  ended 


1  The  tariff  was  the  main  issue  in  the  eastern  states,  and  silver  in  the  western. 


510 


NEW  METHODS  OF   GOVERNMENT 


Theodore  Roosevelt 


McKinley  had  barely  begun 
a  second  term  as  President  in 
1 90 1  when  he  was  assassinated. 
For  the  third  time  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  United  States  a 
President  was  killed.  This  time 
an  anarchist  was  the  assassin. 
The  Vice-President,  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  became  McKinley's 
successor.  President  Roosevelt 
was  reelected  in  1904,  and  his 
Secretary  of  War,  WilKam  H. 
Taft,  followed  him  in  1908. 
New  issues  had  gradually  arisen 
in  the  long  period  of  Republican  control  of  national  affairs. 
The  tariff  remained  little  changed.  How  to  save  the 
country's  natural  resources  and  how  to  control  the  great 
trusts  or  corporations  divided 
the  parties  even  more  sharply. 
The  Republicans  were  not 
agreed  among  themselves 
upon  these  questions.  In  the 
election  of  191 2  one  branch  of 
the  Republican  party,  led  by 
former  President  Roosevelt, 
and  called  the  Progressives, 
battled  with  the  other  parties. 
The  RepubHcans,  the  Demo- 
crats, and  the  Socialists  each 
offered  an  answer  to  the  new 
questions.  With  the  Repub- 
lican party  divided,  the  Demo- 
crats elected  their  candidate,  Governor  Woodrow  Wilson  of 
New  Jersey. 


William  H.  Taft 


IMPORTANT  NEW  LAWS 


511 


The  followers  of  the  new  President  had  a  large  majority 
in  Congress.  Laws  to  carry  out  the  more  important  party 
pledges  were  passed.  The  tariff  on  imports  was  much  re- 
duced, and  a  little  later  a  tariff  commission  was  established 
to  help  Congress  fix  fair  duties  on  imports.  Laws  were 
passed  to  give  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  fuller  control 
of  trusts  and  other  large  business 
organizations.  A  system  of  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Banks  was  created 
to  do  the  work  formerly  done  by 
the  United  States  Bank  which 
President  Jackson  had  destroyed. 
The  Reserve  Banks  represent  the 
government  in  the  banking  busi- 
ness of  the  country  and  supply 
the  amount  of  paper  money, 
Federal  Reserve  notes,  which  is 
needed  for  carrying  on  trade. 
A  law  of  1 91 6,  somewhat  like 
the  Federal  Reserve  act,  established  a  system  of  Federal 
Farm  Loan  Banks  to  aid  the  farmers  with  government  loans 
at  reasonable  rates  of  interest.  Before  this,  in  1914,  the 
United  States  had  decided  to  build  a  government  system  of 
railroads  for  Alaska,  in  order  to  open  for  settlement  a  new 
frontier  and  to  put  on  the  market  for  the  benefit  of  the 
American  people  the  products  of  its  forests,  its  mines  and 
its  soil.  These  were  important  laws,  but  the  completion  of 
the  Panama  Canal,  and  the  Great  European  War  attracted 
more  attention.  The  story  of  the  Panama  Canal,  which 
had  been  begun  in  Roosevelt's  time,  and  of  the  Great  War, 
will  be  told  in  the  last  chapter.  In  191 6  President  Wilson 
was  chosen  for  a  second  term,  though  the  number  of  his 
party  in  Congress  was  reduced  by  the  election. 


WooDRow  Wilson 


512  NEW  METHODS   OF   GOVERNMENT 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  harmful  ideas  about  government  prevailed  long  after  Jackson's 
time?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  phrase  "political  boss"?  "grafter"? 
How  did  the  Tweed  "  ring  "  steal  millions  of  dollars  from  New  York  City? 

2.  What  remedy  for  dishonesty  in  government  was  urged  in  Grant's  time? 
Who  were  the  leaders  in  the  movement  for  Civil  Service  Reform?  What  was 
the  effect  of  the  assassination  of  President  Garfield  on  Civil  Service  Reform? 
Describe  the  Act  of  1883.     Has  the  "  Merit  System  "  been  extended  since  1883? 

3.  Why  were  American  cities  badly  managed?  What  changes  have  been 
made  in  city  government  to  make  it  simpler?  Where  did  the  commission 
plan  of  government  originate?     What  plan  originated  in  Staunton,  Virginia? 

4.  What  other  method  besides  the  commission  plan  has  been  used  to  reduce 
the  number  of  officials  for  whom  the  citizen  must  vote? 

5.  What  are  the  Initiative  and  Referendum?  What  is  the  Recall?  Why 
were  these  adopted  in  the  United  States? 

6.  What  new  class  of  voters  has  lately  been  added?  Where  did  this  move- 
ment begin? 

7.  What  change  took  place  in  1913  in  the  method  of  electing  United  States 
Senators? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  "  city  planning  "  ?  What  changes  have  taken  place 
in  the  methods  of  conducting  campaigns? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Find  out  whether  the  federal,  state,  and  town  offices  of  the  locality  are 
filled  by  the  Merit  system  or  by  the  Spoils  System. 

2.  The  members  of  the  class  should  describe  the  local  government  of  the 
place  where  they  live.  When  was  the  present  form  of  local  government 
adopted?     Is  it  satisfactory  to  the  voters? 

3.  Examine  a  ballot  of  the  last  election.  Was  it  a  "short  ballot"  or  a 
"  Blanket  Ballot "  ?  Were  the  candidates  nominated  by  direct  primaries  or 
by  conventions? 

4.  Do  the  voters  of  the  state  have  a  share  in  law-making  by  the  Initiative 
and  Referendum?  Do  they  have  the  right  of  Recall  of  officials?  If  so,  have 
any  officials  been  recalled? 

5.  Review  the  extension  of  the  number  of  voters,  pages  323-324.  Find 
out  whether  woman  suffrage  has  been  adopted  in  other  countries. 

Important  Dates: 

1883.     Congress  passes  the  Civil  Service  Reform  Act. 

1893.     Colorado  is  the  first  state  to  adopt  Woman  Suffrage. 

1896.     The  Free  Silver  Campaign  with  William  McKinley  and  William 

Jennings  Bryan  as  Republican  and  Democratic  candidates. 
1915.     Opening  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
191 7.     The  United  States  enters  the  Great  War  against  Germany. 


CHAPTER  XLVI 
THE  NEW  EDUCATION 

The  Schools  Since  1876.  —  The  last  thirty  or  forty  years 
have  seen  as  great  changes  in  the  schools  as  in  manufacturing 
and  in  methods  of  government.  Not  only  has  the  number  of 
pupils  steadily  increased,  until  in  1910  it  numbered  nearly 
eighteen  milHons,  but  new  kinds  of  schools  have  been  added. 
Much  of  the  new  work  prepares  the  pupils  directly  for  what 
they  expect  to  do  after  they  leave  school.  The  improvement 
in  managing  schools  and  in  teaching  the  ordinary  subjects, 
reading,  arithmetic,  and  geography,  has  also  been  important. 

Graded  Schools.  —  The  early  schools  were  ungraded,  as 
many  rural  schools  still  are.  Each  teacher  kept  the  same 
pupils  from  the  time  they  began  their  A  B  C's  until  they  left 
school.  The  division  of  the  schools  of  cities  and  larger  towns 
into  grades  was  made  before  the  Civil  War.  In  recent  years 
the  plan  has  been  extended  to  the  rural  schools.  A  large 
township  school  often  takes  the  place  of  several  district 
schools.  In  such  cases  wagons  are  provided  to  carry  the 
children  to  and  from  school.  The  school  year  has  also  been 
lengthened.  Some  cities  keep  their  schools  open  throughout 
the  year,  except  for  short  vacations.  Pupils  may  begin  sub- 
jects in  the  middle,  as  well  as  at  the  beginning,  of  the  year. 
By  this  plan  those  who  are  kept  away  for  a  time  by  illness 
lose  only  a  few  months  instead  of  a  whole  year. 

High  Schools.  —  Many  pubUc  high  schools  and  private 
academies  had  been  estabhshed  before  the  Civil  War,  but 


514  THE  NEW  EDUCATION 

from  1870  to  1900  the  number  of  high  schools  increased 
rapidly.  By  the  end  of  that  period  every  town  or  city  and 
many  rural  districts  had  high  schools.  These  high  schools 
do  for  their  communities  much  that  the  early  American  col- 
leges did  for  the  first  groups  of  settlements. 

New  Subjects.  —  The  chief  task  of  the  graded  school  is 
still  to  teach  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  geography. 
Every  year  the  number  of  persons  in  the  United  States  who 
cannot  read  and  write  is  decreasing.  In  19 10  it  was  only 
seven  or  eight  in  every  hundred,  and  only  three  in  each 
hundred  of  those  born  in  the  United  States.  In  this  matter 
the  United  States  is  behind  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  but 
ahead  of  Italy  and  Austria. 

In  the  upper  grades  the  pupils  learn  more  about  history 
and  government  than  did  their  fathers.  In  history  they 
study  more  about  the  way  people  lived,  about  industry  and 
trade,  and  less  about  war.  Another  important  subject,  called 
hygiene,  teaches  the  pupil  how  to  keep  the  body  healthy. 
In  many  schools  the  boys  are  taught  to  work  in  wood,  and  the 
girls  to  cook  and  to  sew.  Some  schools  have  gardens  in  which 
the  pupils  may  learn  to  raise  vegetables  for  the  use  of  their 
families.  These  changes  have  led  parents  to  make  a  greater 
effort  to  keep  their  children  in  school.  Several  states  have 
passed  laws  forbidding  children  to  leave  school  until  they 
have  reached  a  certain  grade  and  are  fifteen  or  sixteen  years 
of  age. 

Changes  in  High  Schools.  —  The  first  high  schools,  espe- 
cially in  the  eastern  states,  existed  chiefly  to  prepare  boys  for 
college.  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics  were  the  principal 
subjects.  The  American  people  soon  concluded  that  such 
schools  could  educate  only  a  few  of  the  boys  and  girls,  because 
only  a  few  went  to  college.  Before  i860  the  Boston  EngKsh 
High  School  had  added  many  other  subjects,  including  book- 
keeping and   surveying.      Later  the  high  schools  began  to 


HIGH  SCHOOLS 


515 


group  their  students  in  "courses."  Those  who  intended  to 
go  to  college  were  put  into  one  group  and  called  ''classical" 
students.  Within  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  still  greater 
changes  have  taken  place.  Separate  high  schools  have  been 
founded  with  the  aim  of  teaching  their  students  what  they 


A  Technical  High  School  which  runs  Evenings 

need  to  know  in  the  work  for  which  they  are  preparing.  The 
Manual  Training  or  Technical  High  Schools  train  boys  for 
work  in  wood  and  iron,  for  drafting,  designing,  and  other  tasks. 
They  prepare  girls  for  designing,  sewing,  and  cooking.  After 
finishing  the  course  of  study  most  of  the  students  begin  work 
at  once,  while  others  go  to  higher  technical  schools  to  obtain 
greater  knowledge  and  skill.  The  Commercial  High  Schools 
prepare  boys  and  girls  for  the  practical  work  of  business. 
In  communities  where  no  such  separate  high  schools  exist, 
the  newer  subjects  are  taught  in  the  ordinary  high  schools. 
In  some  states  agriculture  is  now  taught  in  the  high  schools 
or  in  special  schools. 

Agricultural  High  Schools.  —  Agricultural  high  schools 
teach  their  pupils  how  to  manage  a  farm,  to  grow  fruit,  to 
care  for  animals,  and  to  conduct  a  dairy.  They  also  teach 
many  of  the  subjects  taught  in  other  high  schools.     In  some 


5i6  THE  NEW  EDUCATION 

of  these  schools,  especially  in  Wisconsin,  the  teachers  not  only 
teach  the  boys  and  girls  who  attend  but  they  also  aid  farmers 
of  the  region  in  planning  their  buildings  and  drainage,  in 
testing  seeds  and  soils,  in  selecting  animals  and  trees,  and  they 
assist  the  housewives  in  arranging  their  kitchens  and  drains, 
and  in  preparing  and  testing  food.  Each  high  school  has  its 
libraries,  shops,  laboratories,  and  workrooms.  Indeed  the 
new  aim  is  to  make  the  rural  high  schools  model  school-farms, 
and  those  in  the  cities  model  school-shops  and  factories. 
The  study  of  books  is  retained  so  that  the  students  may 
understand  the  world  about  them  as  well  as  be  fitted  to  do 
some  useful  work  in  it. 

Colleges  and  Universities.  —  The  growth  of  colleges  and 
universities  has  been  as  rapid  as  that  of  common  schools  and 
high  schools.  Wise  and  generous  men  have  given  large  sums 
to  the  older  colleges,  in  order  that  they  may  do  more  work. 
Other  men  have  founded  new  colleges  and  universities.  The 
gifts  of  one  man  founded  Johns  Hopkins  University,  in  Balti- 
more, in  1876;  of  another  Leland  Stanford  University,  at 
Palo  Alto,  California,  in  1891;  of  still  another  re-founded 
Chicago  University  in  1892.  Other  generous  men  have 
estabHshed  special  institutions  in  which  highly  trained  men 
and  women  endeavor  to  discover  ways  of  preventing  disease 
or  to  find  methods  by  which  the  people  may  do  their  work 
better.! 

The  states  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  as  well  as  a  few  of  the 
older  states,  have  placed  a  university  at  the  top  of  their  plan 
of  public  education.  They  thus  offer  free  education  not  only 
to  the  child  in  the  early  grades  of  the  common  school  and 
in  the  high  school  but  also  to  the  young  man  and  woman  in 
the  state  university. 

As  soon  as  the  Northwest  Territory  was  opened  for  settle- 

^  For  example,  the  Rockefeller  Institute  for  Medical  Research  in  New  York 
City  and  the  Carnegie  Institution  in  Washington. 


fflGHER   EDUCATION  517 

ment,  the  national  government  began  to  give  land  for  the 
founding  of  colleges  and  universities.  During  the  Ci\il  War 
it  made  a  still  more  liberal  offer,  promising  each  state  many 
thousand  acres,  the  amount  in  proportion  to  its  population. 
The  money  obtained  from  the  sale  of  the  lands  was  used  to 


Experiment  Station  Farm 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 

pay  for  teaching  agriculture  and  other  technical  or  practical 
arts.  Some  states  founded  separate  agricultural  or  technical 
colleges,  others  gave  the  new  work  to  their  universities. 
Massachusetts  divided  the  income  from  its  share  between  an 
Agricultural  College  at  Amherst  and  an  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology at  Boston.  New  York,  partly  by  use  of  the  land  grant, 
partly  by  the  use  of  its  ordinary  income,  and  partly  by  gifts 
of  citizens  like  Ezra  Cornell,  built  up  a  great  state  university 
at  Ithaca,  called  Cornell  University. 

In  1887  the  United  States  again  came  to  the  aid  of  higher 
education,  giving  each  state  $15,000  a  year  for  the  improve- 
ment of  agriculture.  This  money  is  used  to  maintain  experi- 
mental or  practice  farms  and  dairies  and  laboratories  for  the 
study  of  problems  connected  with  agriculture.  Farming  is 
becoming  less  a  mixture  of  drudgery  and  chance  and  more 
a  skilled  occupation  like  medicine  and  law. 


5i8  THE  NEW  EDUCATION 

Higher  Education  for  All.  —  The  colleges  in  the  colonies 
were  established  mainly  to  educate  young  men  who  expected 
to  become  Christian  ministers.  The  graduates  of  these  col- 
leges also  became  lawyers  and  physicians.  For  a  long  time 
few  went  to  college  or  the  university  except  those  who  in- 
tended to  enter  such  professions  or  to  become  writers  and 
teachers.  With  the  founding  of  technical  or  engineering 
colleges  a  change  came,  especially  within  twenty  or  thirty 
years.  Now  the  young  man  or  woman,  whether  he  or  she 
is  going  into  one  of  the  older  professions  or  into  industry, 
or  business,  or  is  to  manage  a  farm,  may  find  in  some  depart- 
ment of  the  best  universities  training  for  each  kind  of  work. 
The  students  not  only  use  books,  but  they  work  in  shops  and 
laboratories  upon  tasks  similar  to  those  for  which  they  are 
preparing.  The  states  have  also  established  normal  schools 
in  which  teachers  are  trained  for  the  public  schools. 

Many  states  are  attempting  to  carry  opportunities  for  higher 
education  to  the  people  in  their  homes.  The  University  of 
Wisconsin,  for  example,  has  more  students  working  under  its 
guidance  while  living  at  home  than  it  has  regular  students 
at  Madison.'  The  University  offers  courses  to  the  people  by 
correspondence,  or  in  classes  in  selected  towns  of  the  state. 
Teachers  from  the  University  guide  the  students  in  practice 
work,  assist  them  in  their  studies,  and  help  them  by  lectures 
on  difficult  subjects.  In  such  ways  the  universities  are  work- 
ing for  the  whole  people  more  than  formerly.  They  still 
carry  on  studies  and  experiments  in  order  to  broaden  knowl- 
edge; they  now  do  much  more  to  spread  among  all  the 
people  information  about  every  new  discovery  or  invention. 
Finally,  by  sending  their  teachers  throughout  the  state,  they 
help  officials,  the  voters,  business  men,  and  all  workers  to 
solve  their  problems  or  do  their  work  to  better  advantage. 

School-Houses  as  Social  Centers.  —  Some  cities  and  states 
have  begun  to  make  larger  use  of  their  school-houses.     The 


LARGER  USE  OF   SCHOOL-HOUSES 


519 


schools  are  supplied  with  books  and  magazines  and  news- 
papers in  order  to  provide  a  reading-room  for  old  as  well  as 
young,  or  with  a  traveling  Ubrary  sent  from  the  state  or  city 
Ubrary.  Club  rooms,  gymnasiums,  bath  rooms,  and  play- 
grounds provide  other  means  of  recreation  for  the  people  of 
the  neighborhood.  This  plan  makes  the  school-house  a  peo- 
ple's club  and  an  educational  center. 


The  Neighborhood  Using  the  School  Building 

Parks  and  Playgrounds.  —  In  this  period,  also,  many  cit- 
izens have  learned  that  it  is  not  enough  to  provide  schools 
where  boys  and  girls  may  remain  a  few  hours  of  the  day  for 
most  of  the  year.  They  have  concluded  that  the  cities 
should  provide  parks  and  playgrounds  where  the  young  people 
may  enjoy  healthful  games  after  school  hours  instead  of 
loafing  about  the  street  corners  or  running  risks  by  playing  in 
the  streets.  Such  playgrounds  are  not  mere  open  fields,  but 
grounds  suitable  for  games,  under  the  care  of  some  one  who 
understands  how  interesting  games  are  played.  Chicago  set 
a  good  example  to  other  cities  by  providing  a  playground  in 
Washington  Park  in  1876.     Twenty  years  passed  before  much 


520 


THE    NEW   EDUCATION 


more  was  done  there  or  in  other  cities.  Then  Chicago  ap- 
pointed a  commission  whose  business  it  was  to  establish  play- 
grounds in  parts  of  the  city  so  crowded  with  buildings  that 
little  open  space  for  play  remained.  Other  cities  took  up  the 
work.  In  1910  more  than  a  third  of  the  cities  of  the  United 
States  had  such  playgrounds. 

These   playgrounds   are   for   men  and  women  as  well  as 
children.     Near  the  grounds  a  large  house  has  often   been 


U.IX 


^ 


A  Chicago  Playground 


built,  suitable  for  neighborhood  parties,  for  picnics,  or  for 
dances.  Park  and  house  together  are  called  ''recreation 
centers."  By  means  of  them  thousands  of  people  have 
gained  for  the  first  time  an  opportunity  for  wholesome  play. 
Five  million  persons  used  the  recreation  centers  of  Chicago 
in  one  year.  Such  are  a  few  of  the  new  methods  of  education 
for  the  people. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  town  and  rural  schools  since  1876? 
In  the  high  schools? 

2.  What  new  subjects  are  taught  in  the  schools?     In  the  high  schools? 
What  special  kinds  of  high  schools  have  been  built? 

3.  Describe  the  method  and  aims  of  the  agricultural  and  technical  high 
schools. 


QUESTIONS    AND    EXERCISES  521 

4.  How  did  the  colleges  and  universities  secure  money  to  extend  their  work? 
What  has  the  United  States  done  to  help  higher  education?  What  have  the 
states  done? 

5.  For  what  were  the  colleges  in  the  colonies  established?  For  what  reason 
do  people  now  go  to  college? 

6.  How  do  the  universities  now  attempt  to  broaden  their  usefulness? 

7.  What  use  do  some  places  make  of  their  school  houses?  Why  do  cities 
establish  playgrounds?      ♦ 

EXERCISES 

1.  Locate  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  state.  How  are  such  schools 
supported?     What  kind  of  education  does  each  offer? 

2.  Find  examples  of  work  done  by  neighboring  colleges  or  universities 
similar  to  that  done  by  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 

3.  Visit  some  school  center  and  cit>  playground  and  describe  its  work. 


CHAPTER  XLVII 
THE  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  LARGER  WORLD 

Struggle  for  Colonies.  —  The  United  States  for  more  than 
a  century  found  plenty  of  lands  to  be  colonized  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  the  Far  West,  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  Few 
Americans  desired  to  conquer  colonies  beyond  the  seas. 
Meanwhile  other  nations  had  again  become  rivals  in  the 
struggle  for  colonial  territories.  The  EngHsh,  ever  since  the 
Revolutionary  War  had  deprived  them  of  the  best  part  of 
their  colonial  possessions,  had  been  busy  adding  one  new 
colony  to  another.  Their  colonial  empire  had  become  world- 
wide, and  they  could  boast  that  upon  it  the  "  sun  never  sets." 
The  French,  who  had  lost  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Lawrence 
valleys  in  1763,  had  also  been  building  up  a  new  colonial 
empire,  this  time  in  northern  Africa  and  southeastern  Asia. 
Since  1884  the  Germans  had  been  estabhshing  colonies  in 
Africa,  on  the  coast  of  China,  and  in  the  Pacific  islands.  In 
1898  the  United  States  followed  such  examples,  taking  posses- 
sion of  several  colonies  after  a  war  with  Spain. 

The  Spanish  War,  1898.  —  President  McKinley,  early  in 
his  administration,  was  obliged  to  decide  how  the  United 
States  should  act  in  a  war  which  had  broken  out  between  the 
Cubans  and  the  Spaniards.  Spain  had  ruled  over  Cuba  since 
the  time  of  Columbus.  The  Cubans,  like  the  Mexicans  and 
South  Americans  long  before,  were  trying  to  put  an  end  to 
Spanish  rule  and  to  found  an  independent  republic.  The 
war  had  been  raging  two  or  three  years  and  the  island  was 
being  laid  waste.  Stories  of  the  cruelty  of  Spanish  generals 
and  of  the  sufferings  of  the  Cubans  aroused  the  sympathy  of 


THE    SPANISH-AMERICAN   WAR  523 

the  American  people.  Some  Americans  had  property  in 
Cuba  worth,  all  told,  nearly  $50,000,000,  and  they  were 
anxious  to  have  the  war  stopped. 

The  Destruction  of  the  "  Maine."  —  It  had  already  become 
hard  to  keep  the  peace  between  Spain  and  the  United  States, 
so  strongly  did  many  Americans  urge  their  government  to 
compel  Spain  to  satisfy  the  Cubans.  The  Spaniards,  on  their 
side,  were  enraged  at  the  assistance  that  Americans  privately 
gave  the  Cubans.     In  February,  1898,  the  American  battle- 


/ 

Manila  and  the  Pasig  River 

Showing  the  Magellan  monument  and  the  stone  bridge  connecting 
the  walled  city  with  Binondo 

ship  Maine,  at  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  Havana,  was  blown 
up,  causing  the  death  of  two  officers  and  258  seamen.  Most 
Americans  beUeved  that  the  Spaniards  had  destroyed  the 
ship  and  clamored  for  war  against  them.  McKinley  reluc- 
tantly yielded  and  war  was  declared. 

The  War.  —  The  conflict  with  Spain  was  brief,  lasting  only 
from  April' to  August.  The  Spaniards,  who  had  spent  their 
resources  in  a  vain  effort  to  conquer  Cuba,  were  unprepared 
for  a  longer  war.  On  May  i.  Commodore  George  Dewey,  with 
a  small  fleet,  easily  destroyed  a  much  inferior  Spanish  fleet 
in  Manila  harbor.     Spain  sent  to  Cuban  waters  a  squadron 


524  THE  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  LARGER  WORLD 

under  Admiral  Cervera,  but  it  was  soon  shut  up  in  the  harbor 
of  Santiago  by  a  larger  American  force  under  the  command 
of  Admiral  Sampson.  In  order  to  make  the  capture  of  the 
Spanish  ships  in  Santiago  sure,  an  army  of  about  16,000  men, 
commanded  by  Major-General  Shafter,  was  transported  from 
Port  Tampa,  Florida,  and  landed  on  the  coast  near  Santiago.^ 
Finally,  on  July  3,  the  Spanish  fleet  made  a  heroic  effort  to 
escape  through  the  United  States  fleet  stationed  before  the 
entrance  to  the  harbor.  After  a  running  fight  the  Spanish 
vessels  were  destroyed.  Santiago  soon  surrendered.  Another 
American  army  under  General  Nelson  A.  Miles  over-ran  Porto 
Rico.  A  third,  with  some  help  from  the  natives,  captured 
the  city  of  Manila,  in  the  Philippines,  completing  the  task 
that  Commodore  Dewey  had  undertaken.  About  this  time 
the  war  came  to  an  end. 

Spain's  Loss  of  Colonies.  —  In  the  treaty  with  Spain, 
Porto  Rico,  Guam,  and  the  Philippine  Islands  were  ceded  to 
the  United  States.  Spain  in  return  received  $20,000,000. 
Cuba  was  given  its  independence.  Spain  thus  lost  the  last 
remnant  of  her  once  vast  colonial  empire  in  the  New  World. 
Her  influence,  nevertheless,  remained.  The  people  of  the 
countries  of  South  America,  except  Brazil,  of  Central  America, 
Mexico,  and  several  of  the  West  India  islands  were  still  largely 
Spanish. 

The  New  Territories  of  the  United  States.  —  In  the  midst 
of  the  Spanish  War  Congress  annexed  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
with  the  assent  of  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants.  These 
islands  are  half-way  stations  to  Japan,  China,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands.  Any  nation  which  controlled  them  would 
possess  excellent  harbors  for  its  navy  and  would  increase  its 

^  One  cavalry  troop,  called  the  "Rough  Riders,"  under  the  command  of 
Colonel  Leonard  Wood  and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Theodore  Roosevelt,  was  com- 
posed principally  of  western  cowboys,  Indians,  football  players,  and  adventurers. 
The  doings  of  this  regiment  excited  much  interest  throughout  the  war. 


NEW   TERRITORY    GAINED 


525 


power  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Hawaiians  had  first  been 
taught  the  ways  of  civilization  by  American  missionaries. 
Many  Americans  had  settled  in  the  islands.  Under  their 
lead  a  few  years  before  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  over- 
throw the  native  rulers  and  add  the  islands  to  the  United 
States.  President  Cleveland,  however,  had  refused  to  sup- 
port this  plan  of  annexation.     In  the  islands,  at  the  present 


"The  Cross-Roads  of  the  Pacific" 

time,  besides  the  Hawaiians  and  the  Americans,  there  are 
many  Japanese  and  Chinese. 

In  the  Philippines  there  are  more  than  3000  islands.  Luzon, 
the  largest,  is  about  the  size  of  Ohio.  More  than  7,000,000 
people  inhabit  the  archipelago,  varying  from  the  highly 
civilized  Spaniards  and  Filipinos,  to  the  rudest  savage  tribes. 
The  islands  are  only  half  explored  and  the  natural  resources 
almost  untouched. 

When  Commodore  Dewey  attacked  the  Spanish  fleet  in 
Manila  Bay,  the  natives  were  already  trying  to  overthrow 
Spanish  rule.  They  welcomed  the  Americans,  whose  forces 
made  certain  the  defeat  of  the  Spaniards.     Many  of  them 


526  THE  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  LARGER  WORLD 

were  angry  when  they  discovered  that  they  had  simply  changed 
masters,  and  they  attacked  the  American  army.  This  new  war 
lasted  about  three  years.  As  soon  as  possible  after  its  close 
the  Americans  gave  the  natives  a  share  in  the  government  of 
the  islands.  Americans  are  divided  upon  the  question 
whether  the  Filipinos  should  be  made  independent  or  should 
remain  under  American  control. 


A  Public  School  in  Porto  Rico 

Solving  New  Problems.  —  In  the  newly-gained  territories 
of  the  United  States  and  in  Cuba  natives  and  Americans  have 
worked  well  together.  Much  ha^  been  done  to  make  the 
islands  more  healthful.  Major  Walter  Reed,  an  army  sur- 
geon, discovered  that  malaria  and  yellow  fever  are  carried 
by  mosquitoes.  He  concluded  that  if  these  little  pests  were 
destroyed,  those  diseases  would  die  out.  It  was  one  of  the 
world's  great  discoveries.  Yellow  fever,  the  scourge  of  all 
tropical  countries,  and  especially  of  the  West  Indies  and  the 
southern  cities  of  the  United  States,  was  conquered.  Besides 
helping  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines  to  conquer 
disease,  and  besides  building  roads  and  harbors,  the  United 
States  has  tried  to  establish  its  free  school  system  among 
them.  More  than  a  thousand  American  school  teachers  have 
been  sent  to  the  Philippines. 


THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


527 


ATLANTIC 
OCEAN 


The  Panama  Canal.  —  The  most  interesting  story  of  work 
done  in  a  tropical  climate  is  that  of  the  Panama  Canal.  Before 
the  war  with  Spain  began,  the  battleship  Oregon  was  stationed 
on  the  Pacific 
coast.  As  it  was 
needed  in  the  West 
Indies  for  the 
coming  struggle 
with  the  Spanish 
fleet,  it  was  or- 
dered to  steam  at 
full  speed  around 
South  America,  a 
distance  of  13,000 
miles.  The  people 
of  the  United 
States  waited 
anxiously  for  the 
news  that  it  had 
reached  the  other 
ships  in  the  West 
Indies.  They 
saw  that  many 
days  would  be 
saved  if  there 
were  a  canal 
through  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama.^ 

For      centuries 


t; 


Mm^ 


PACIFIC 
OCEAN 


Relief  Map  of  the  Panama  Canal 


men  had  dreamed  of  such  a  canal.     They  thought  that  they 


^  There  were  other  reasons  which  made  the  people  wish  to  have  a  canal. 
For  example,  an  "all-water"  highway  from  the  Pacific  coast  to  the  Atlantic 
would  enable  shippers  to  send  their  goods  from  one  coast  to  the  other  at  less 
cost  than  by  the  railroads. 


528  THE  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  LARGER  WORLD 

could  cut  the  passageway  which  Columbus  had  tried  in  vain 
to  discover.  In  1536  the  king  of  Spain  formed  a  plan  for  a 
ship  canal  near  the  Chagres  River.  A  French  company 
started  in  1881  to  build  one,  but  became  bankrupt  before 
the  work  was  half  finished,  seven  years  later.^ 


Routes  Passing  Through  the  Panama  Canal 


From  New  York 


Comparative  Distances 

I  To  San  Francisco  The  Orient    Melbourne  Callao  Valparaiso 

via  Magellan     13,135      13,566      12,852  9,613        8,380 

via  Panama        5,262        9,798      10,392  3,363        4,633 

Difference  7,873       3,768       2,460  6,250       3,747 


I  via  Magellan      13,502      13,933      13,425       9,980       8,747 

From  Liverpool      \  via  Panama       7,836     12,372     12,966        5,937       7,207 

(  Difference  5,666        1,661  459        4,043        1,540 

The  Builders  of  the  Canal.  —  President  Roosevelt  and  his 
Secretary  of  State,  John  Hay,  next  took  up  the  task  on  be- 
half of  the  United  States.  They  bought  the  rights  of  the 
French  Company,  and  entered  into  an  agreement  with  the 

1  The  French  Company  spent  $260,000,000  in  its  efforts  to  build  a  canal. 


THE  PANAMA   CANAL  529 

little  republic  of  Panama  by  which  a  strip  or  zone  ten  miles 
wide  was  secured.^  Medical  officers,  of  whom  Colonel  Gorgas 
was  the  chief,  made  the  region  a  safe  place  in  which  to  hve, 
as  they  had  learned  to  do  in  Cuba  and  the  island  possessions 
of  the  United  States.     An  army  officer,   Colonel   Goethals, 


Locks  in  the  Panama  Canal 

was  given  general  charge  of  the  task.  Digging  the  passage- 
way through  the  hilly  part  was  begun  in  1906,  where  the 
French  had  left  off  many  years  before.  A  dam  on  the  Chagres 
River,  besides  furnishing  the  water  for  part  of  the  canal, 
made  a  waterfall  from  which  dynamos  produce  sufficient 
electricity  to  furnish  power  and  light  throughout  the  canal. 
The  first  boats  passed  through  the  completed  canal  in  19 14, 
though  the  formal  opening  was  celebrated  in  19 15  with  an 
Exposition  at  San  Francisco.  Vessels  now  pass  through  the 
canal  in  10  or  12  hours,  while  the  voyage  around  South 
America  would  take  from  30  to  45  days.  The  canal  brings 
the  coasts  of  the  United  States  closer  together,  and  is  also 
rapidly  becoming  a  highway  of  trade  for  all  the  world. 

^  The  United  States  paid  the  French  Company  $40,000,000,  and  to  Panama 
$10,000,000,  and  promised  the  latter  also  an  additional  yearly  payment  or 
rental  of  $250,000  beginning  in  1913. 


530  THE  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  LARGER  WORLD 

The  Great  War  in  Europe.  —  President  Wilson  had  been 
in  office  only  a  little  more  than  a  year  when  a  great  European 
war  broke  out.  This  came  as  a  surprise  and  a  shock  to  most 
Americans.  They  knew  that  the  principal  countries  of 
Europe  had  long  been  divided  into  two  groups  —  on  one 
side  the  Triple  Alliance,  composed  of  the  German  Empire, 
the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy,  and  Italy;  and  on  the 
other  France,  Russia,  and  Great  Britain.  They  had  been  told 
that  at  several  times  within  ten  years  these  two  groups  were 
on  the  verge  of  war,  and  that  each  country  was  steadily 
adding  to  its  army  and  navy.  However,  the  cry  of  "Wolf, 
Wolf!"  had  been  raised  so  often  that  nearly  every  one  came 
to  believe  that  a  general  European  war  was  impossible. 

Suddenly,  in  July,  19 14,  Austria-Hungary  and  Servia  be- 
came involved  in  a  bitter  controversy,  growing  out  of  the 
murder  of  the  heir  of  the  aged  Emperor-King  Francis 
Joseph.  Russia  stood  by  Servia,  and  Germany  supported 
Austria-Hungary.  Great  Britain  tried  to  have  the  matter 
settled  by  a  conference,  but  Austria-Hungary  declared  war 
on  Servia.  When,  in  consequence,  the  Czar  Nicholas  began 
to  assemble  the  Russian  armies,  William  II,  the  German 
Emperor,  declared  war  upon  Russia  and  began  to  attack 
France  as  the  ally  of  Russia.  In  order  to  strike  at  France 
on  a  side  poorly  defended,  the  German  armies  forced  their 
way  through  Belgium,  a  small  neutral  country.  This,  to- 
gether with  the  danger  to  France,  brought  Great  Britain  into 
the  conflict.  Italy,  after  holding  aloof  for  months,  broke 
off  her  alliance  with  Austria-Hungary  and  Germany,  and 
joined  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia.  A  war  in  which 
so  many  great  nations  took  part  threatened  the  United 
States  with  serious  calamities.  The  warring  governments 
were  not  likely  to  pay  careful  attention  to  the  rights  of  neu- 
trals while  they  were  struggling  for  their  own  existence.  To 
fulfill  the  duties  of  a  neutral  and  to  insist  upon  respect  for 
neutral  rights  was  the  difficult  task  of  the  President. 


THE   GREAT  WAR  IN  EUROPE  531 

The  United  States  enters  the  War.  —  For  nearly  three 
years  President  Wilson  succeeded  in  keeping  the  peace  with 
the  warring  nations.  Meanwhile  two  things  made  the 
majority  of  the  American  people  sympathize  with  France 
and  her  allies,  rather  than  with  Germany  and  her  allies.  The 
first  was  the  terrible  revenge  the  German  armies  took  upon 
the  Belgian  cities  and  towns  which  tried  to  resist  invasion. 
The  second  was  the  cruel  way  in  which  German  submarines, 
or  U-boats,  attacked  merchant  ships.  It  was  this  that  finally 
brought  on  war  with  the  United  States.  In  order  the  more 
to  injure  its  enemies,  especially  the  British,  the  German 
government  gave  orders  to  the  U-boats  to  sink  all  vessels, 
even  those  belonging  to  neutral  countries,  which  sailed  either 
to  or  from  the  shores  of  Great  Britain,  France,  or  Italy.  The 
attack  was  usually  made  by  discharging  a  torpedo  under 
water,  and  a  fearful  explosion  was  often  the  first  notice  a  ship 
had  that  a  U-boat  was  near.  The  consequence  was  that 
many  sailors  and  passengers  were  drowned.    ' 

The  German  government  claimed  in  excuse  that  such 
^'  ruthless  "  deeds  were  in  retaliation  for  the  British  blockade 
which  was  reducing  the  Germans  to  the  verge  of  starvation. 
It  was  one  thing  to  carry  on  a  strict  blockade  —  the  Federal 
government  had  done  this  during  the  Civil  War  —  but  it  was 
quite  another  to  order  American  merchant  ships  sunk  with- 
out caring  for  the  crews  or  the  passengers.  To  agree  that 
the  United  States  must  yield  to  the  threats  of  a  foreign  gov- 
ernment or  see  American  citizens  drowned  on  the  high  seas 
would  be  to  surrender  its  rights  as  an  independent  nation. 
First,  as  a  solemn  warning,  President  Wilson  broke  off 
diplomatic  relations  with  Germany.  When  after  two  months 
the  German  attacks  only  increased.  President  Wilson  asked 
Congress  to  declare  these  to  be  acts  of  war.  He  said  that 
the  war  had  become  a  struggle  for  liberty,  for  the  freedom 
of  each  people,  small  or  great,  to  pursue  its  work  in  peace. 


532  THE  REPUBLIC  ANb  THE  LARGER  WORLD 

threatened  neither  by  ambitious  princes  nor  by  nations  eager 
to  increase  their  power  or  their  boundaries.  Congress  ac- 
cepted his  advice  and  both  Houses  by  large  majorities 
declared  war  upon  the  German  Imperial  Government. 

The  Hague  TribunaL  —  One  thing  had  made  the  war  in 
Europe  seem  especially  distressing;  this  was  the  disappoint- 
ment of  the  hope  that  nations  had  at  last  found  a  better  way 
to  settle  .their  differences.  In  the  year  following  the  Spanish- 
American  War  the  United  States  took  part  in  a  meeting  of  the 
great  nations  for  the  purpose  of  finding  a  better  way  to  pre- 
vent wars.  The  United  States  had  already  settled  about  60 
disputes  by  arbitration.  No  nation  except  England  had  so 
good  a  record.  Upon  the  suggestion  of  the  Czar  of  Russia 
a  conference  was  held  at  The  Hague.  Twenty-nine  nations 
were  represented.  The  United  States,  because  of  its  expe- 
rience with  arbitration,  was  able  to  take  a  leading  part'.  The 
conference  agreed  that  each  government  should  appoint  four 
judges  who  should  form  a  Hague  Court  of  Arbitration. 
From  the  list  of  judges  any  two  nations  might  select  a  small 
court  by  which  their  dispute  could  be  settled.  The  plan 
would  save  delay  in  forming  a  special  court,  and  would  keep 
before  the  world  a  better  way  than  warfare  for  the  settlement 
of  disputes.  Another  and  larger  meeting,  this  time  at  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt's  suggestion,  was  held  at  The  Hague  in  1907. 
Andrew  Carnegie  soon  caused  a  great  peace  palace  to  be  built 
for  the  Hague  Tribunal  and  for  the  use  of  the  nations  in  their 
conferences.  Some  have  called  it  the  first  building  in  the 
capital  of  a  United  States  of  the  World. 

Looking  Backward.  —  It  is  more  than  300  years  since  the 
first  settlements  were  made  within  the  territory  of  the  United 
States.  More  than  25,000,000  Europeans  have  left  the  Old 
World  for  this  part  of  the  New  World. ^  The  number  includes 
10,000,000    EngHsh,    Irish,    Scotch,   and   Welsh,    5,000,000 

1  These  estimates  are  for  the  period  from  1607  to  19 10. 


THE   GREAT  WAR  IN  EUROPE 


533 


Germans,  nearly  2,000,000  from  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden,  4,000,000  Slavs,  and  4,000,000  Italians,  French, 
Spaniards,  and  Portuguese.  Immigrants  or  their  descend- 
ants make  up  the  100,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  United 
States.  This  is  a  population  greater  than  that  of  any 
nation  of  Europe  except  Russia.^ 

A  new  Europe  has  grown  up  in  North  America.  The  skill, 
the  knowledge,  and  the  ideals  of  many  nations  have  been 
mingled  together  to  form  the  American  civilization.  The 
history  of  America  began  with  a  race  among  explorers  who 
were  trying  to  find  a  short  passage  to  the  Spice  Islands  of  the 
East.  It  soon  became  a  history  of  the  way  in  which  thou- 
sands and  then  millions  of  the  people  of  an  older  and  crowded 
world  found  room  and  opportunity  in  a  new  world. 

The  Present  Task.  —  Much  of  the  work  which  the  pioneers 
of  each  period  did  was  hurried,  and  sometimes  it  was  wasteful. 
The  wealth  of  the  land  seemed  so  boundless  that  it  did  not 
appear  necessary  to  care  for  game,  or  trees,  or  soil.  This  is 
the  task  of  the  new  pioneers.  They  already  understand  that 
they  must  seek  to  preserve  the  wealth  which  is  the  nation's 
inheritance.  The  waste  places  must  be  watered  and  planted, 
and  the  soil  musf  be  used  more  wisely  and  the  forests  made 
alive  again  with  game.  Some  call  this  work  ''  conservation." 
•The  new  pioneers  have  another  task.  Although  all  have 
had  a  share  in  the  government,  many  have  been  too  eager  to 
organize  industries,  or  manage  trade,  or  open  mines,  to  do 
their  full  duty  as  citizens  of  a  self-governing  nation.  With- 
out the  help  of  all,  the  government  of  even  a  republic  may  fall 
into  the  hands  of  a  few.  The  task  here  is  also  one  of  ''con- 
servation," guarding  the  liberties  won  by  the  men  of  past 
generations.  It  is  also  one  of  progress,  that  the  life  of  cities 
may  be  more  wholesome,  that  the  rewards  of  work  in  city  and 

1  Not  counting  the  dependencies  or  parts  of    European  nations  in  other 
continents. 


534  THE  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  LARGER  WORLD 

country  may  be  distributed  more  fairly,  and  that  justice  and 
brotherhood  may  be  the  watchword  alike  of  city,  state,  and 
nation. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  did  England,  France,  and  Germany  obtain  colonies  in  the  nine- 
teenth century?  When  did  the  United  States  obtain  colonies  beyond  the  seas? 
How  did  the  United  States  obtain  its  colonies? 

2.  Why  did  the  people  of  the  United  States  want  to  stop  the  war  in  Cuba? 
What  reason  had  the  Spaniards  for  becoming  enraged  at  the  people  of  the 
United  States?    What  was  the  effect  of  the  destruction  of  the  Maine? 

3.  What  happened  during  the  brief  war  with  Spain?  What  colonies  did 
Spain  lose  by  the  war?  In  what  ways  did  Spanish  influence  remain  in  the  New 
World? 

4.  What  colony  had  the  United  States  obtained  during  the  war  with  Spain? 
What  people  live  in  this  colony?  .Why  did  the  United  States  have  a  war  with 
the  Filipinos? 

5.  What  was  the  discovery  of  Major  Walter  Reed?  What  has  the  United 
States  done  for  its  colonies? 

6.  Why  did  the  people  of  the  United  States  desire  a  Panama  Canal?  Who 
had  tried  to  build  one?  What  did  the  medical  officers  of  the  United  States  do 
to  aid  in  the  work? 

7.  What  way  of  settling  disputes  between  nations  was  established  in  1899? 

8.  What  nations  went  to  war  in  19 14?  What  other  nations  were  later 
involved?    Why  did  the  United  States  enter  the  war? 

9.  How  many  European  immigrants  have  come  to  America  in  the  three 
hundred  years  and  more  of  its  history?  What  nations  have  sent  the  largest 
numbers  of  these?     What  tasks  have  the  new  pioneers  in  the  United  States? 

EXERCISES 

1.  Learn  as  much  as  possible  about  the  resources,  geography,  and  people  of 
the  colonies. 

2.  What  nations  should  the  Panama  Canal  benefit  by  shortening  the  routes 
of  trade?  See  map,  page  528,  with  the  chief  distances  by  the  old  routes  as  well 
as  by  the  new  routes  made  possible  by  the  canal. 

3.  Compare  the  causes  of  the  War  of  181 2  with  those  of  the  War  of  191 7. 
Important  Dates  : 

1898.  War  with  Spain  and  the  annexation  of  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippines, 

and  Hawaii. 

1899.  The  Hague  Tribunal  established. 

19 1 7.     The  United  States  enters  the  Great  War. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   SUMMARY   OF  AMERICAN 
POLITICAL   HISTORY 

1776.  The  English  colonies  declared  their  independence  of  Great  Britain,  and 
at  the  same  time  took  steps  to  secure  aid  from  France,  and  to  form  a 
permanent  union. 

1778.  France  formed  an  alliance  with  the  united  colonies,  supplying  them 
with  money  and  assisting  them  further  with  her  navy  and  army  in  the  war 
against  Great  Britain  for  independence. 

1781.  The  Continental  Congress  had  drawn  up  a  constitution,  the  Articles 
of  Confederation,  and  submitted  it  to  the  thirteen  states.  They  adopted 
the  new  government  which  joined  them  together  as  the  United  States  with 
a  Congress  as  the  chief  organ  of  government. 

1783.  Great  Britain  agreed  to  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  United  States  and  her 
ally,  France,  recognizing  the  independence  of  her  former  colonies  and 
their  union  as  the  United  States. 

1783-89.  Period  of  the  Confederation.  The  United  States  included  a 
total  area  of  892,135  square  miles.  About  3,250,000  people  lived  in  the 
new  republic.  Of  these  only  a  few  thousand  lived  west  of  the  mountains. 
One-fifth  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  were  negro  slaves. 

The  states  with  western  lands  gave  up  most  of  them  to  the  United 
States,  to  be  used  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  people.  Congress  adopted  for 
these  lands  a  system  of  surveying  into  townships,  sections,  and  quarters, 
and  began  the  practice  of  using  a  portion  of  the  land  for  the  support 
of  education.  In  1787,  by  the  so-called  ''Ordinance  of  1787,"  Congress 
adopted  a  form  of  government  for  its  territories  in  the  West,  made  promises 
about  the  admission  of  these  into  the  Union,  and  other  promises  to  the 
inhabitants  about  their  rights. 

In  1787  a  convention  at  Philadelphia  framed  a  new  Constitution  for 
the  United  States.  This  Constitution  gave  the  United  States  more  power 
and  created  three  branches  of  government  —  a  Congress,  a  President,  and 
a  Supreme  Court  —  in  place  of  the  one-house  Congress  of  the  Articles  of 
Confederation.  Eleven  states  adopted  this,  and,  although  North  Carolina 
and  Rhode  Island  did  not  yet  do  so,  abandoned  the  old  constitution 
for  the  new  one.  The  new  government  was  organized  in  March  and 
April,  1789. 

1789-97.  George  Washington,  First  President.  Under  the  new  Constitu- 
tion it  was  the  duty  of  men  called  electors  to  choose  the  President  and 


ii  CHRONOLOGICAL    SUMMARY    OF 

Vice-President.  In  some  states  the  people  chose  the  electors,  in  others 
the  state  legislatures  chose  them.  The  first  body  of  electors  voted  unani- 
mously for  General  Washington  of  Virginia  for  President.  They  chose 
John  Adams  of  Massachusetts  Vice-President,  though  not  by  a  unani- 
mous vote.  Ten  amendments  guarding  the  rights  of  the  people  and 
the  states  were  adopted  in  December,  1791.  In  1792  Washington  was 
again  chosen  President  and  John  Adams  Vice-President.  While  Wash- 
ington was  President  five  states  were  admitted  to  the  Union.  These 
were  North  Carolina  in  1789,  Rhode  Island  in  1790,  Vermont  in  1791, 
Kentucky  in  1792,  and  Tennessee  in  1796,  making  at  this  time  16  states 
in  the  Republic.  In  1 790  the  first  census  or  count  of  the  population  was 
taken.  It  showed  a  total  of  almost  4,000,000  people  in  the  United  States. 
Of  these  about  110,000  lived  west  of  the  mountains.  Out  of  every  100 
inhabitants  three  lived  in  cities.  It  required  the  greater  part  of  Wash- 
ington's first  term  and  much  of  his  second  to  organize  the  new  govern- 
ment and  decide  upon  its  poHcies.  Two  questions  were  the  payment  of 
state  debts  and  the  creation  of  a  Bank  of  the  United  States.  It  was  not 
long  before  his  advisers  and  even  the  people  as  a  whole  were  divided  into 
two  political  parties  over  these  questions.  One  party  was  called  the  Fed- 
eralist and  the  other  the  Democratic  or  Repubhcan  party.  Washington 
preferred  the  views  of  the  Federahsts.  Hamilton  and  Adams  were  the  real 
leaders  of  the  Federalists.  Jefferson  and  Madison  were  the  leaders  of  the 
Republicans.     Washington  refused  to  be  a  candidate  for  a  third  term. 

1797-1801.  John  Adams.  The  electors  were  closely  divided  between  the 
Federalist  candidate,  John  Adams,  and  the  Republican,  Thomas  Jefferson 
of  Virginia.  Adams  had  a  majority  of  three  votes.  In  those  days  the 
one  receiving  the  next  number  became  Vice-President.  An  eleventh 
amendment  on  the  powers  of  the  Supreme  Court  was  adopted  in  1798. 
The  Federalists  had  trouble  with  France,  and  were  obliged  to  prepare  for 
war.  This  led  them  to  pass  laws  for  heavy  taxes  and  other  laws  like  the 
Alien  and  Sedition  Acts.  Both  kinds  of  laws  were  unpopular  with  the 
majority  of  the  people. 

1801-09.  Thomas  Jefperson.  In  the  election  in  1800  the  Repubhcan 
electors  had  a  clear  majority.  It  happened,  however,  that  their  two 
candidates,  Thomas  Jefferson  of  Virginia  and  Aaron  Burr  of  New  York, 
had  the  same  number  of  votes.  The  House  of  Representatives  had  to 
decide  the  question  which  of  them  should  be  President.  It  chose  Thomas 
Jefferson.  Burr  became  Vice-President.  After  this  experience  a  twelfth 
amendment  was  passed  in  1804,  changing  the  method  of  voting  for  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President,  so  that  the  electors  should  vote  separately  for 
each.  One  new  state,  Ohio,  was  admitted  in  1803.  In  the  same  year 
Jefferson  purchased  Louisiana  for  $15,000,000.  As  Louisiana  had  an  area 
of  827,987  square  miles,  the  cost  was  about  three  cents  an  acre.  Jef- 
ferson was  so  popular  that  he  obtained  a  great  majority  in  the  election  in 


AMERICAN   POLITICAL   HISTORY  iii 

1804.  George  Clinton  of  New  York  became  Vice-President.  Jefferson's 
last  years  as  President  were  made  unhappy  by  the  troubles  with  England 
and  France,  and  the  necessity  of  taking  measures  to  protect  American 
rights  and  trade.  Jefferson,  like  Washington,  refused  to  be  a  candidate 
for  a  third  term.  He  wished  his  Secretary  of  State,  James  Madison  of 
Virginia,  to  succeed  him  as  President,  and  such  a  wish  counted  with  his 
Republican  followers. 

1809-17.  James  Madison.  Madison  became  President  in  1809.  The 
Republicans  were  still  in  a  great  majority  over  the  Federalists.  George 
CUnton  was  reelected  Vice-President.  The  population  of  the  country  was 
increasing  rapidly.  In  the  census  of  1800  it  was  5,308,483.  In  the  census 
of  1810  it  was  a  third  larger,  or  7,239,881.  Two  years  later,  181 2,  Louisi- 
ana was  admitted  as  a  state  in  the  Union,  making  the  eighteenth  state. 

In  June,  181 2,  war  was  begun  with  England.  An  election  occurred 
during  the  war.  Madison  was  reelected  President.  Elbridge  Gerry  of 
Massachusetts  was  Vice-President.  War  measures  formed  the  chief 
subject  of  laws  until  1815.  In  1816  a  second  Bank  of  the  United  States 
was  chartered,  and  a  new  state,  Indiana,  taken  into  the  Union.  The 
Federahst  party  had  nearly  broken  up,  and  in  the  election  of  this  year 
was  able  to  offer  almost  no  opposition  to  the  Republican  candidate. 

1817-25.  James  Monroe.  Monroe  had  been  Madison's  Secretary  of  State, 
and  had  the  President's  support  in  the  election.  Monroe,  too,  was  from 
Virginia.  It  looked  as  though  Virginia  had  a  monopoly  in  furnishing 
Presidents.  The  new  Vice-President  was  Daniel  D.  Tompkins  of  New 
York.  Beginning  with  the  admission  of  Indiana,  in  1816,  one  new  state 
was  added  each  year  for  six  years  until  there  were  altogether  twenty-four 
states.  The  new  ones  were  Mississippi  in  1817,  Illinois  in  1818,  Alabama 
in  1819,  Maine  in  1820,  and  Missouri  in  1821.  First  one  from  the  South, 
and  then  one  from  the  North,  each  time  keeping  the  balance  even.  A 
great  compromise  upon  slavery  was  made  with  the  entrance  of  Maine 
and  Missouri:  this  was  that  the  remaining  territory  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  should  be  divided;  that  the  portion  north  of  the  line  36°  30' 
was  never  to  allow  slavery,  while  that  south  might.  Monroe  was  reelected 
in  1820.  His  opponent  received  only  one  electoral  vote.  Tompkins 
was  also  again  chosen  Vice-President.  In  1819  the  United  States  pur- 
chased Florida  —  a  territory  of  72,101  square  miles,  but  sparsely  settled  — 
from  Spain  for  about  $5,000,000.  The  census  of  1820  showed  that  the 
population  was  9,638,453,  or  about  three  times  that  of  1783.  Now  more 
than  2,250,000  people  lived  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains.  The  event 
of  Monroe's  administration  most  often  remembered  was  the  announce- 
ment in  1823  that  the  United  States  would  oppose  any  effort  of  European 
countries  either  to  establish  any  new  colonies  in  North  or  South  America 
or  any  interference  with  the  freedom  of  the  states  already  formed  there. 
This  was  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 


iv  CHRONOLOGICAL    SUMMARY   OF 

1825-29.  John  Quincy  Adams.  When  the  election  of  1824  came  on  the 
FederaHst  party  had  almost  entirely  disappeared.  The  Republican  party 
was  divided  into  several  factions,  each  supporting  its  favored  leader.  The 
vote  for  Andrew  Jackson  and  John  Quincy  Adams  was  very  close.  Neither 
had  a  majority  of  all  the  votes  cast  for  President.  The  House  of  Represen- 
tatives for  a  second  time  decided  the  question,  electing  Adams.  He  was 
a  son  of  the  second  President,  and,  like  his  father,  was  from  Massachusetts. 
John  C.  Calhoun  of  South  Carolina  became  Vice-President.  Adams  had 
been  Monroe's  Secretary  of  State.  He  was  greatly  interested  in  maintain- 
ing the  Monroe  Doctrine  and  promoting  the  building  of  roads  and 
canals. 

1829-37.  Andrew  Jackson.  The  friends  of  Andrew  Jackson  thought  he  had 
been  cheated  out  of  the  Presidency  in  1824,  and  bent  every  effort  to  secure 
his  election  in  1828.  The  Republicans  gradually  divided  into  two  parties, 
the  followers  of  Jackson  and  of  Adams  and  Clay.  Jackson  was  triumphant 
and  Calhoun  was  again  elected  Vice-President.  The  followers  of  Jackson 
were  coming  to  be  known  by  their  other  name,  Democrats,  and  began 
to  drop  the  name  RepubUcans.  The  followers  of  Adams  took  the  name 
Whigs.  In  the  election  of  1832  the  candidates  for  President  were 
nominated,  not  as  formerly  by  a  caucus  of  the  members  of  each  party  in 
Congress,  but  by  a  national  convention  of  delegates  from  the  states. 
Jackson  was  very  popular  with  the  people  and  was  easily  reelected. 
Martin  Van  Buren  of  New  York  became  Vice-President.  The  census  of 
1830  reported  a  population  of  12,866,020.  Two  states,  the  25th  and 
the  26th,  Arkansas  in  1836  and  Michigan  in  1837,  came  in  during  Jack- 
son's administration.  Jackson  wished  his  party  to  make  the  Vice-President 
his  successor  as  President,  and  his  will  prevailed. 

1837-41.  Martin  Van  Buren.  In  1836  the  Democrats  were  again  success- 
ful. Besides  Van  Buren  as  President,  they  chose  Richard  M.  Johnson 
of  Kentucky  Vice-President.  Van  Buren's  party  was  blamed  for  the 
panic  of  1837,  and  so  for  the  first  time  in  over  thirty  years  was  defeated 
in  the  next  election. 

1841-45.  William  Henry  Harrison  and  John  Tyler.  The  Whig  candidates 
in  1840  were  Wilham  Henry  Harrison  of  Ohio  for  President,  and  John 
Tyler  of  Virginia  for  Vice-President.  The  census  gave  a  population  of 
17,069,453.  Harrison  died  four  weeks  after  he  became  President.  Tyler 
at  once  became  President,  to  serve  out  the  term.  Just  before  Tyler's  term 
ended  in  1845,  it  was  decided  to  annex  Texas.  This  was  the  addition  of 
389,166  square  miles  of  territory.  Florida,  which  was  admitted  about 
the  same  time,  and  Texas  made  twenty-eight  states  in  the  Union. 

1845-49.  James  K.  Polk.  The  Whig  triumph  was  of  short  duration.  In 
1845  the  Democrats  elected  their  candidate,  James  K.  Polk  of  Tennessee 
President,  and  George  M.  Dallas  of  Pennsylvania  Vice-President.  The 
greater  part  of  President  Polk's  single  term  as  President  was  taken  up  with 


AMERICAN   POLITICAL   HISTORY  v 

the  trouble  with  Mexico  which  ended  in  war.  Iowa  was  admitted  in 
1846  and  Wisconsin  in  1848.  These  again  made  equal  the  number  of 
states  with  slavery  and  those  without  slavery.  By  a  treaty  with  Great 
Britain  in  1846  the  United  States  retained  part  of  the  Oregon  Coun- 
try, 286,541  square  miles.  At  the  end  of  the  Mexican  War  529,189  square 
miles  more  territory  were  acquired.  This  included  California  and  the 
territory  from  which  Arizona,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  part  of  Colorado  and 
New  Mexico  have  been  formed.  In  the  treaty  which  ended  the  war  and 
provided  for  the  annexation  of  the  southwestern  region,  the  United 
States  paid  Mexico  a  little  over  $15,000,000. 

1849-50.  Zachary  Taylor.  The  Whigs  were  successful  in  the  election  of 
1848.  They  had  named  as  their  candidate  one  who  had  become  a  hero  in 
the  Mexican  War,  General  Zachary  Taylor  of  Louisiana.  Millard  Fill- 
more of  New  York  was  their  candidate  for  Vice-President.  President 
Taylor  died  in  1850,  a  year  and  four  months  after  his  term  began.  The 
Vice-President  for  the  second  time  in  American  history  became  Presi- 
dent by  the  death  of  the  President. 

1850--63.  Millard  Fillmore.  In  1850  there  were  23,191,876  people  in  the 
United  States.  The  year  1850  was  more  important  for  the  compromise 
made  by  Congress  over  the  slavery  question.  The  aim  of  one  part  of  the 
Compromise  was  to  please  the  North  by  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  another  part  to  please  the  South  by 
securing  the  return  of  fugitive  slaves.  By  another  part  the  territory 
lying  bet\^8een  Texas  and  California  was  to  have  slavery  or  not,  as  the 
inhabitants  should  decide.  By  still  another  part  California  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  without  slavery,  Wisconsin  had  been  admitted  in  1848. 
There  were  now  thirty-one  states.  Those  without  slavery  outnumbered 
those  with  it.  In  1853  the  United  States  purchased  a  tract  of  territory, 
29,670  square  miles,  from  Mexico,  in  order  to  round  out  the  southern 
boundary.     Mexico  received  $10,000,000. 

1863-67.  Franklin  Pierce.  The  Democrats  regained  power  in  the  election 
of  1852.  FrankHn  Pierce  of  New  Hampshire  became  President,  and" 
William  R.  King  of  Alabama  Vice-President.  The  repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise  in  1854  and  the  application  5f  the  rule  that  Kansas 
and  Nebraska,  like  the  Southwest,  might  have  slaves  if  the  inhabitants 
wished  and  so  voted,  led  to  the  formation  of  a  new  political  party.  This 
party,  the  Republican,  was  bent  on  keeping  the  territories  for  free  laborers 
rather  than  slaves.  The  Whig  party,  Uke  the  FederaUst,  gradually  broke 
up;  its  members  went  over  to  one  of  the  other  parties,  chiefly  to  the 
Republicans.  This  made  it  easy  for  the  Democrats  again  to  win  in  the 
election  of  1856,  in  spite  of  the  unpopularity  in  the  North  of  the  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  Act. 

1857-61.  James  Buchanan.  The  Democratic  victor  in  the  election  of  1856 
was  James  Buchanan  of  Pennsylvania.      The  new  Vice-President  was 


vi  CHRONOLOGICAL    SUMMARY   OF 

John  C.  Breckinridge  of  Kentucky.  Buchanan's  term  was  taken  up 
chiefly  with  the  great  dispute  over  slavery.  One  event  after  another 
arrayed  the  North  and  South  against  each  other.  The  Dred  Scott 
decision  in  1857  and  the  John  Brown  Raid  in  1859  were  the  most  serious 
events  in  the  growth  of  the  trouble.  In  1858  Minnesota  was  admitted, 
and  the  following  year  Oregon  made  the  thirty-third  state.  The  count 
of  population  just  before  the  Civil  War  showed  a  total  of  31,443,321. 
This  was  almost  exactly  ten  times  the  number  in  1783.  Of  the  total 
population  the  slave-holding  states  had  12,240,000  people;  3,950,000  of 
these  were  slaves.  The  North  had  19,201,546.  The  area  of  the  fifteen 
slave-holding  states  was  882,245  and  of  the  free  states  824,622  square  miles 
The  greater  part  of  the  territories,  however,  could  be  counted  as  sure  to 
become  free  states,  and  this  made  the  area  of  the  region  opposed  to 
slavery  about  double  the  area  of  that  favorable  to  it. 

1861-65.  Abraham  Lincoln.  The  new,  or  Republican,  party  won  in  the 
election  of  i860,  chiefly  because  the  Democratic  party  was  hopelessly 
divided  over  the  slavery  question.  The  Republican  candidate  for  Presi- 
dent was  Abraham  Lincoln  of  Illinois,  and  for  Vice-President  Hannibal 
Hamlin  of  Maine.  Just  before  Lincoln  became  President  seven  southern 
states  seceded.  Soon  afterward  four  more  united  in  a  Southern  Con- 
federacy. Almost  the  entire  period  of  Lincoln's  Presidency  was  occupied 
with  the  Civil  War.  Three  new  states  were  formed  during  the  War. 
These  were  Kansas  in  1861,  West  Virginia  in  1863  (from  the  western  part 
of  Virginia),  and  Nevada  in  1864.  Lincoln  was  reelected  for  a  second 
term  in  1864.  Andrew  Johnson  of  Tennessee  was  at  this  time  chosen 
Vice-President.  One  month  and  ten  days  after  Lincoln  began  his  second 
term  he  was  assassinated,  and  Andrew  Johnson  became  President. 

1865-69.  Andrew  Johnson.  The  new  President  and  Congress  quarreled 
over  the  manner  of  reorganizing  the  states  which  had  seceded  and  of  set- 
tling the  questions  which  had  arisen  as  a  result  of  the  war.  Two  amend- 
ments were  quickly  added  to  the  Constitution.  The  13th  amendment 
in  1865  forbade  slavery  within  the  United  States.  The  14th  amendment 
in  1868  was  intended,  among  other  things,  to  prevent  the  states  from 
abridging  the  rights  of  citizens  whether  white  or  black.  In  the  same 
year  Congress  impeached  President  Johnson  and  so  attempted  to  remove 
him  from  oflice.  Nebraska  joined  the  Union  in  1867,  and  Alaska  was 
purchased  from   Russia.     The  purchase  of  Alaska  cost  $7,200,000,   and 

^       added  590,884  square  miles  of  territory  to  the  United  States. 

1869-77.  Ulysses  S.  Grant  of  Illinois  became  President  in  1869,  and  Schuyler 
Colfax  of  Indiana  Vice-President.  They  were  elected  by  the  Republi- 
cans. In  1870  the  15  th  amendment  became  a  part  of  the  Constitution. 
By  this  the  states  were  forbidden  to  restrict  the  right  to  vote  on  the  ground 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude.  The  United  States 
now   had  a  population  of  38,558,371.     Grant   was    reelected  in   1872, 


AMERICAN   POLITICAL   HISTORY  vii 

with  Henry  Wilson  of  Massachusetts  Vice-President.  Colorado  was 
admitted  in  1876.  Congress  throughout  Grant's  two  terms  was  still 
much  occupied  with  the  questions  which  had  grown  out  of  the  Civil  War 
—  reconstruction  in  the  South  and  management  of  the  national  debt. 

1877-81.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes.  In  the  election  of  1876  the  Republicans 
put  forward  as  candidates  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  of  Ohio  for  President, 
and  WiUiam  A.  Wheeler  of  New  York  for  Vice-President.  The  Republi- 
can candidates  had  only  one  electoral  vote  more  than  their  opponents. 
In  reality  Samuel  J.  Tilden  of  New  York  and  T.  A.  Hendricks  of  Indiana 
the  Democratic  candidates,  had  more  votes  of  the  people,  and  would 
have  won  if  the  people  voted  directly  for  President.  The  census  of  1880 
gave  the  population  of  the  United  States  as  50,155,783. 

1881-85.  James  A.  Garfield  and  Chester  A.  Arthur.  In  1880  the  Re- 
publicans had  a  larger  vote  than  in  1876,  though  the  contest  between 
them  and  the  Democrats  was  still  close.  James  A.  Garfield  of  Ohio 
and  Chester  A.  Arthur  of  New  York  became  President  and  Vice- 
President  respectively.  Garfield  was  shot  by  an  assassin,  July  2,  1881; 
he  died  September  19;  and  Arthur  became  President.  One  landmark  in 
legislation  of  the  period  was  the  Act  of  1883  requiring  examination  for 
many  federal  appointments.    This  was  the  Civil  Service  Reform  Act. 

1885-89.  Grover  Cleveland.  For  the  first  time  since  the  Civil  War  the 
Democratic  party  won  in  the  election  of  1884.  Grover  Cleveland  of  New 
York  became  President  the  next  year,  and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks  of 
Indiana  Vice-President.  In  1887  Congress  passed  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Act  for  the  regulation  chiefly  of  railroad  rates  on  commerce  going 
from  state  to  state. 

1889^93.  Benjamin  Harrison.  The  Democrats  remained  in  power  only 
one  term.  The  RepubKcan  candidates  in  the  election  of  1888  were  suc- 
cessful. They  were  Benjamin  Harrison  of  Indiana,  President,  and  Levi 
P.  Morton  of  New  York,  Vice-President.  In  this  case,  as  in  that  of 
Hayes,  the  majority  of  the  electors  voted  for  Harrison,  but  the  majority 
of  the  people  voted  for  his  opponent,  Grover  Cleveland.  The  principal " 
laws  of  the  time  were  about  the  larger  use  of  silver  as  money  and  about 
the  tariflf.  Several  new  states  were  formed  from  the  western  territory  — 
chiefly  from  the  old  Louisiana  territory  —  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota, 
Montana,  and  Washington  in  1889,  and  Idaho  and  Wyoming  in  1890. 
The  number  brought  the  United  States  up  to  a  total  of  forty-four  states, 
where  it  remained  until  1896.  The  total  population  in  the  census  of 
1890  was  62,947,714. 

1893-97.  Grover  Cleveland.  After  four  years  out  of  the  Presidency, 
Grover  Cleveland  returned  as  a  result  of  the  election  in  1892.  The 
Democratic  party  had  again  won.  The  new  Vice-President  was  Adlai 
E.  Stevenson  of  Illinois.  One  new  state,  Utah,  was  admitted  in  1896 
while  Cleveland  was  President. 


viii  CHRONOLOGICAL   SUMMARY   OF 

1897-1901.  William  McKinley.  In  the  election  of  1896  it  was  the  turn 
of  the  Republicans  to  win.  Their  candidates,  William  McKinley  of 
Ohio  and  Garret  A.  Hobart  of  New  Jersey,  became  President  and  Vice- 
President.  In  1898  the  United  States  was  at  war  with  Spain.  During 
the  war  the  Hawaiian  Islands  were  annexed.  They  have  an  area,  alto- 
gether, of  6,449  square  miles.  At  the  end  of  the  war,  by  the  treaty  with 
Spain,  Guam,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines  were  acquired.  Guam 
has  an  area  of  210  square  miles,  Porto  Rico  of  3,435  square  miles,  and 
the  Philippines  115,026  square  miles.  The  United  States  paid  Spain 
$20,000,000,  but  this  amount  in  no  sense  represents  the  cost  of  the  new 
possessions.  The  war  with  Spain  cost  the  United  States  many  times 
$20,000,000.  In  1899  the  Samoan  Islands  were  divided  between  the 
United  States  and  Germany.  The  United  States  was  given  six  islands 
with  an  area  of  seventy-seven  square  miles.  In  the  census  of  1900  the 
United  States  was  found  to  have  a  population  of  75,994,575,  not  counting 
the  island  inhabitants.  President  McKinley  was  reelected  in  1900. 
Theodore  Roosevelt  of  New  York  became  Vice-President.  Six  months 
after  McKinley's  second  term  began  he  was  assassinated,  and  Roosevelt 
became  President,  to  finish  the  term  of  three  years  and  six  months. 

1901-09.  Theodore  Roosevelt.  Theodore  Roosevelt  completed  McKinley's 
term,  and  in  1904  was  elected  President.  Charles  W.  Fairbanks 
of  Indiana  was  chosen  Vice-President.  The  arrangement  with  Great 
Britain  and  Panama  by  which  the  United  States  acquired  control  of  a 
zone  ten  miles  wide  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  power  to  build 
a  canal,  was  one  of  the  most  important  events  of  the  time.  In  1902  the 
government  began  the  work  of  irrigating  parts  of  the  deserts  of  the  West. 
The  passage  of  laws  (i)  to  protect  the  people  against  impure  foods,  (2) 
to  obtain  more  thorough  railway  rate  regulation,  and  (3)  to  protect  the 
nation's  forests  and  streams  from  ruin,  made  the  period  an  epoch  in  Amer- 
ican history.     In  1907  Oklahoma  became  a  state  in  the  United  States. 

1909-13.  William  H.  Taft.  In  1908  WiUiam  H.  Taft  of  Ohio,  a  Republican, 
was  chosen  President,  and  James  S.  Sherman  of  New  York  Vice-President. 
President  Taft  extended  the  plan  of  merit  tests  for  many  clerks  and  assis- 
tant postmasters  in  government  service.  The  Republican  party  was,  how- 
ever, so  divided  on  the  great  questions  of  the  day,  tariff  reform  and 
caring  for  the  country's  natural  resources,  that  few  important  laws  were 
passed.  Congress  and  the  President,  however,  did  agree  on  two  mem- 
orable laws.  By  one  in  191 1  a  postal  savings  system  was  established;  by 
another  in  19 13  the  post  offiice  was  also  authorized  to  carry  parcels  of  a 
moderate  weight.  In  191 2  two  states,  formed  from  the  territory  obtained 
from  Mexico  in  1848,  were  admitted.  These,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
brought  the  total  number  of  states  to  forty-eight.  The  population  by  the 
census  of  1910  was  91,972,266,  not  including  the  island  possessions.  The 
area  in  square  miles  is  about  3,617,673. 


AMERICAN    POLITICAL    HISTORY  ix 

1913-  .  WooDROW  Wilson.  In  the  election  of  191 2  the  Republican  party- 
was  divided.  The  Convention  renominated  President  Taft.  Many 
Republican  delegates  joined  with  others  in  a  Progressive  party,  which 
tried  to  elect  former  President  Roosevelt.  Woodrow  Wilson  of-  New 
Jersey,  whom  the  Democrats  nominated  for  President,  was  chosen,  with 
Thomas  R.  Marshall  of  Indiana  for  Vice-President.  Just  before  Taft's 
term  expired  the  announcement  was  made  that  a  i6th  amendment  had 
become  law.  This  gave  Congress  power  to  tax  incomes.  A  few  weeks 
after  the  inauguration  of  President  Wilson  a  17th  amendment  was  added 
to  the  Constitution.  It  changed  the  method  of  electing  the  Senators 
of  the  United  States,  who  had  hitherto  been  selected  by  the  state  leg- 
islatures. Under  the  new  plan  the  people  vote  directly  for  them  as  they 
do  for  the  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  President  Wilson's 
first  work  was  an  attempt  to  carry  out  his  party's  pledges.  The  most 
famous  law  for  this  purpose  was  a  new  tariff  act  which  reduced  the  taxes 
on  imports.  In  19 14  a  Federal  Reserve  Bank  system  was  established 
and  steps  taken  to  build  a  government  railroad  in  Alaska.  Within  the 
same  year  the  Panama  Canal  was  practically  completed.  This  was  the 
year  when  a  Great  War  began  in  Europe.  The  establishment  of  the 
Federal  Farm  Loan  Banks  and  the  re-election  of  President  Wilson  in  1916, 
the  order  of  the  President  for  the  choice  of  postmasters  for  merit  rather 
than  for  political  services,  and  the  entry  of  the  United  States  into  the 
European  War  because  German  submarines  destroyed  American  merchant 
ships  are  events  also  to  be  remembered. 


POPULATION 

Population  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Period  of  Independence 
Entire  United  States 

1776 2,750,000        1790 3,929,214 

1783 3,250,000 

Population  by  States  from  First  Census  —  1790 

Connecticut 237,946  New  York. 340,120 

Delaware 59,096  North  Carolina 393, 75i 

Georgia 82,548  Pennsylvania 434,373 

Kentucky^ 73,677  Rhode  Island 68,825 

Maryland 319,728  South  Carohna 249,073 

Massachusetts 378,787  Tennessee  ^ 35,691 

Maine  ^ 96,540  Vermont  ^ 85,425 

New  Hampshire 141,885  Virginia 747, 610 

New  Jersey 184,139 

Area  and  Population  of  the  States  and  Territories  of  the 
United  States   19 10 

States  Area  in  square  miles  Population  in  1910 

Alabama 51,998 2,138,093 

Arizona *.  113,956 204,354 

Arkansas 53,335 i,574,449 

California 158,297 -.  ..  2,377,549 

Colorado 103,948 799,024 

Connecticut 4,965 1,114,756 

Delaware 2,370 202,322 

Florida 58,666 752,619 

Georgia 59,265 2,609,121 

Idaho 83,888 325,594 

Illinois 56,665 5,638,591 

Indiana 36,354 2,700,876 

Iowa 56,147 2,224,771 

Kansas 82,158 1,690,949 

Kentucky 40,598 2,289,905 

Louisiana 48,506 1,656,388 

Maine • 33,040 742,371 

iln  1790  these  were  only  territories. 


STATES   AND    TERRITORIES  xi 

States  Area  in  square  miles  Population  in  19 lo 

Maryland 12,327 1,295,346 

Massachusetts 8,266 3,366,416 

Michigan 57,98° 2,810,173 

Minnesota 84,682 2,075,708 

Mississippi 46,865 1,797,114 

Missouri 69,420 3,^93,335 

Montana 146,997 376,053 

Nebraska 77,520 1,192,214 

Nevada 110,690 81,875 

New  Hampshire 9,34i 430j572 

New  Jersey 8,224 2,537,167 

New  Mexico 122,634 327,301 

New  York 49,204 ' 9,113,614 

North  Carolina 52,426 2,206,287 

North  Dakota 70,837 r.  .  . 577,056 

Ohio 41,040 4,767,121 

Oklahoma 70,057 1,657,155 

Oregon 96,699 672,765 

Pennsylvania 45,126 7,665,111 

Rhode  Island 1,248 542,610 

South  Carolina 30,989 1,515,400 

South  Dakota 77,6i5 583,888 

Tennessee 42,022 2,184,789 

Texas 265,896 3,896,542 

Utah 84,990 373,351 

Vermont 9,564 355,956 

Virginia 42,627 2,061,612 

Washington 69,127 1,141,990 

West  Virginia 24,170 1,221,119 

Wisconsin 56,066 2,333,860 

Wyoming 97,9i4 145,965 

Territories  Area  in  square  miles  Population  in  19 10 

Alaska 590,884 64,356 

District  of  Columbia 70 331,069 

Guam 210 (Estimated)         9,000 

Hawaii 6,449 191,909 

Panama  Canal  Zone 436 (Estimated)        50,000 

Philippine  Islands 115,026 (Census  of  1903)  7,635,426 

Porto  Rico 3,435 1,118,012 

Samoa .' 77 (Estimated)         6,100 

Total  of  United  States  and 

its  possessions 3,743,3o6 101,100,000 


Xll 


POPULATION 


Population  of  the  United  States  by  Races 
Census  of  igio 

White 81,731,957        Chinese 7IjS3i 

Negro 9,827,763        Japanese 72,157 

Indian 265,683        All  other 3,i75 

Total  population,  not  including  island  possessions 91,972,266 


Place  of  Birth  of  Present  Population 
Census  of  igio 


Born  in  the 


United  States 

Foreign  Countries . . , . . 

Austria  ^ 

Belgium 

Canada  —  French  .  . 

Canada  —  Other  .  . . 

China 

Cuba  and  other  West 
Indies 

Denmark 

England 

France 

Germany  ^ 

Greece 

Hungary 


Born  in 

78,456,380  Ireland 1,352,251 

13,515,886  Italy 1,343,125 

1,174,973  Japan 67,744 

49,400  Mexico 221,915 

385,083  Netherlands 120,063 

819,554  Norway 403,877 

56,756  Portugal 59,360 

Russia  and  Finland  ' . .  . .  1,732,462 

47,635  Scotland 261,076 

181,649  Spain 22,108 

877,719  Sweden 665,207 

117,418  Switzerland 124,848 

2,501,333  Turkey 9i,959 

101,282  Wales 82,488 

495,609  All  other  countries 158,992 


Cities  of  the  United  States  with  Population  over  200,000 
Census  of  19 10 


Number  over  10 
years  unable  to 
read  and  write 


Average  number  in 

the  hundred  of 

population  unable 

to  read  and  write 


City  Population 

Baltimore 558,485 20,325 4.4 

Boston 670,585 24,468 4.4 

3-7 

4-5 

3-1 

4.6 

2.1 

5- 

3. 


Buffalo 423,715 12,745 

Chicago 2,185,283 79,911 

Cincinnati 363,591 9,576 

Cleveland 560,663 20,676 

Denver 213,381 3,841 

Detroit 465,766 18,731 

Indianapolis 233,650 5,874 

1  Poland  counted  under  Austria,  Germany,  and  Russia. 


RACES   AND   CITIES  xiii 

Average  number  in 
Number  over  lo  the  hundred  of 

years  unable  to        population  unable 
City  Population  read  and  write  to  read  aftd  write 

Jersey  City 267,779 11,797 5.6 

Kansas  City 248,381 4,937 2.3 

Los  Angeles 319,198 5,258 1.9 

Louisville 223,928 9,886 5.3 

Milwaukee 373,857 10,765 3-6 

Minneapolis 301,408 6,139 2.4 

New  Orleans 339,o75 18,987 6.9 

New  York 4,766,883 254,208 6.7 

Newark 347,469 16,553 6. 

Philadelphia 1,549,008 57, Too 4.6 

Pittsburgh 533,905 •  26,627 6.2 

Portland 207,214 2,145 1-2 

Providence 224,326 14,236 7.7 

Rochester 218,149 6,916 3.8 

St.' Louis 687,029 21,123 3.7 

St.  Paul 214,744 3,751 2.1 

San  Francisco 416,912 7,697 2.1 

Seattle 237,194 2,217 i.i 

Washington 331,069 13,812 4.9 


Population  of  Countries  of  Europe  (Not  including  island  colonies) 

Countries                           Area  in  square  miles  Population 

Austria-Hungary 261,035 49,418,596 

Belgium ii,373 7,074,9io 

Denmark 15,388 2,585,660 

England  and  Wales 58,575 36,075,269 

France 207,054 " 38,961,945 

Germany • 208,830 64,903,423 

Ireland 32,373 4,38i,95i 

Italy 110,550 32,475,253 

Netherlands 12,648 5,898,429 

Portugal 35,490 5,423,132 

Russia  (including  Asiatic  Russia)  8,647,657. 160,095,200 

Scotland 30,443 4,759,521 

Spain 194,783 19,503,008 

Sweden 172,876 5,476,441 

Switzerland 15,976 3,741,971 


xiv  PROGRESS   AND   WASTE 

Progress  of  Education 

Number  in  every  looo   of  population  of  principal  countries  over  12  years 
unable  to  read  and  write 

Country  1840  1890  1900 

Austria 790 450 310 

Belgium 550 200 1 20 

France 530 150 50 

Germany 180 40 10 

Great  Britain 410 100 . 60 

Italy 840 530 440 

Netherlands 300 140 100 

Russia  (in  Europe) ....  980 850 780 

Sweden 200 .  .  .  •. 30 10 

Switzerland 200 _.    50 10 

United  States 200 130 100  ^ 

Waste  of  Wealth  in  the  United  States^ 

Waste  in  mining,  preparation  of  minerals, 

and  in  their  use $1,500,000,000  per  day 

Forest  fires  destroy 50,000,000  of  timber  yearly 

Fires  destroy 450,000,000  of  property  yearly 

Floods  sweep  away 500,000,000  of  valuable  top  soil 

Sickness  and  death  cost 3,000,000,000  yearly 

1  In  1910  this  was  77. 

2  This  amount  includes  not  only  direct  waste,  — for  example,  through  careless  mining,  loss  of 
by-products,  or  throwing  away  scrap-iron  —  but  also  indirect  waste,  like  using  poorly  constructed 
stoves  and  furnaces,  and  stoking  fires  improperly.  For  a  discussion  of  all  the  items  in  the 
table,  see  E.  L.  Bogart,  Economic  History  of  the  United  States. 


INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS 

Tabi>e  Showing  Indusirial  Progress  of  the.  United  States  ^ 


XV 


1800 

x8io 

7,200,000 

1820 

1830 

1840 

1850 

Popuiation 

5.300,000 

9,600,000 

12,890,000 

17,000,000 

23,100,000 

Public  debt  . 

$82,900,000 
No  estimate 

$53,100,000 

$QI  000.000 

.It/iR  eon  000 

$3,500,000 

$63,400,000 
No  estimate 

Value  of  farm  products 

No  estimate 

No  estimate  No  estimate 

No  estimate 

Value      of      manufactured 
products 

No  estimate 

No  estimate 

No  estimate  No  estimate 

No  estimate 

$1,019,100,000 

Value  of  imports 

$91,200,000 

$85,400,000 

$74,400,000 

$62,700,000    $98,200,000 

$173,500,000 

Value  of  exports 

$70,900,000 

$66,700,000 

$69,600,000 

$71,600,000  $123,600,000 

$144,300,000 

Tons  of  coal  produced 

Very  few 

Very  few 

3,000 

285,000          1,800,000 

6,200,000 

Gallons  of  petroleum 

None 

None 

None 

None 

Very  few 

Very  few 

Tons  of  steel 

Very  few 

Very  few 

V^ery  few 

Very  few 

No  estimate 

No  estimate 

Pounds  of  wool 

No  estimate 
No  estimate 
No  estimate 

No  estimate 
No  estimate 
No  estimate 

No  estimate 

No  estimate 

35,800,000 

84,800,000 

377,500,000 

52,500,000 

Bushels  of  wheat .... 

1 
No  estimate  No  estimate 

No  estimate  No  estimate 

100,040,000 

Bushels  of  com 

592,000,000 

IS5.000 
No  estimate 

340,000 
No  estimate 

Tons  of  sugar  consumed. .  . 

No  estimate 

69,000 

100,000 

200,000 

None 

None 

None 

23 

2,818 

9,000 

i860 

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

31,400,000 

38,500,000 

50,100,000 

62,900,000 

75,900,000 

91,900,000 

$64,600,000 

$2,046,400,000 

$1,723,900,000 

$725,300,000 

$1,023,400,000 

$913,300,000 

No  estimate 

$1,958,000,000 

$2,212,500,000 

$2,460,100,000 

$3,764,100,000 

$8,900,000,000 

$1,885,800,000 

$4,232,300,000 

$5,369,500,000 

$9,372,400,000 

$13,014,200,000 

$20,600,000,000 

$353,600,000 

$435,900,000 

$667,900,000 

$789,300,000 

$849,900,000 

$1,556,900,000 

$333,500,000 

$392,700,000 

$835,600,000 

$857,800,000 

$1,394,400,000 

$1,744,900,000 

13,000,000 

29,400,000 

63,800,000 

140,800,000 

240,700,000 

411,400,000  (1909) 

21,000,000 

220,900,000 

1,104,000,000 

1,924,500,000 

2,672,000,000 

7,649,600,000  (1909) 

:  No  estimate 

68,000 

1,200,000 

4,200,000 

10,100,000 

23,955,021  (1909* 

60,200,000 

162,000,000 

232,500,000 

276,000,000 

288,600,000 

321,300,000 

173,100,000 

235,800,000 

498,500,000 

399,200,000 

522,200,000 

695,400,000 

838,700,000 

1,094,200,000 

1,717,400,000 

1,489,900,000 

2,105,100,000 

3,125,700,000 

4,800,000 

3,100,000 

5,700,000 

7,300,000 

9,400,000 

11,900,000 

400,000 

600,000 

900,000 

1 ,400,000 

2,200,000 

3,600,000 

30,000 

52,000 

93,000 

166,000 

194,000 

244,084  (1909 

REFERENCES    FOR    TEACHERS 


Shorter  Histories  6f  the  United  States 

(i)  Elson,  H.  W.,  History  of  the  United  States.  (2)  Epochs  of  American  History  — ■ 
(a)  Thwaites,  R.  G.,  The  Colonies,  1492-1750,  (b)  Hart,  A.  B.,  Formation  of  the  Union, 
1750-1829,  (c)  Wilson,  W.,  Division  and  Reunion,  1829-1909.  (3)  Home  University 
Library  Series  —  (a)  Andrews,  C.  M.,  The  Colonial  Period,  (b)  Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  Civil 
War,  (c)  Haworth,  P.  L.,  Reconstruction  and  Reunion  —  (other  volumes  for  the  inter- 
vening periods  will  follow).  •  (4) 'Sparks,  E.  E.,  United  States  of  America,  2  vols., 
emphasis  on  social  and  economic  side.  (5)  Wilson,  Woodrow,  History  of  the  Ameri- 
can People  (published  in  5  vols.). 

Longer  Histories 

Channing,  Edward,  History  of  the  United  States  (3  vols.,  covering  the  history 
to  1789). 

McMaster,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States  (8  vols.,  covering  the  years 
1781  to  1861). 

Rhodes,  J.  F.,  History  of  the  United  States  (1850  to  1877). 

None  of  the  longer  histories  covers  the  entire  history  of  the  United  States.  The  author 
of  the  first  plans  to  continue  his  work  to  the  present  time,  in  8  vols.;  the  third  to  con- 
tinue his  through  the  period  since  1876. 

The  American  Nation,  edited  by  A.  B.  Hart,  27  vols.;  the  most  careful  complete 
history.    Each  volume  treats  fully  a  short  period. 

Fiske,  John,  historical  works:  (a)  The  Discovery  of  America,  2  vols.,  (b)  The  Be- 
ginnings of  New  England,  (c)  Old  Virginia  and  her  Neighbors,  2  vols.,  (d)  The  Dutch 
and  Quaker  Colonies  in  America,  2  vols.,  (e)  The  American  Revolution,  2  vols.,  (/)  The 
Critical  Period,  1 783-1 789,  (g)  New  France  and  New  England.  These  are^remarkably 
entertaining  and  usually  trustworthy  histories.  They  deal  only  with  the  Colonial  and 
Revolutionary  Periods  of  American  History. 

Parkman,  Francis,  historical  works,  (a)  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World, 
{b)  The  Jesuits  in  North  America,  (c)  La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great  West, 
(d)  The  Old  Regime  in  Canada,  (e)  Frontenac  and  New  France  under  Louis  XIV,  (/)  A 
Half-Century  of  Conflict,  2  vols.,  (g)  Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  2  vols.,  (h)  The  Conspiracy 
of  Pontiac,  2  vols.     A  great  historical  series,  devoted  chiefly  to  the  French  in  America. 

A  useful  book  of  selections  from  Parkman,  entitled  Francis  Parkman,  The  Struggle 
for  a  Continent,  has  been  made  by  Pelham  Edgar. 

Lummis,  C.  F.,  Spanish  Pioneers.  A  short  history  of  the  Spanish  exploration  and 
colonization  in  the  New  World,  which  treats  a  subject  neglected  by  the  other  histories. 

Coman,  Katherine,  Economic  Beginnings  of  the  West,  2  vols.;  (excellent  for  the 
early  history  of  the  region  west  of  the  Mississippi). 

Special  Reading  List 

A  brief  list  of  special  readings  for  each  chapter  is  given.  The  books  selected  are  all 
adapted  to  use  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  It  is  believed  that  the  teacher  may  wish 
to  suggest  some  of  them  to  ambitious  students  for  home  reading,  and  sometimes  use 
them  for  classroom  reading  or  as  the  basis  for  classroom  stories.  The  list  might  be 
greatly  extended.    A  Bibliography  of  History  for  Schools  and  Libraries  by  Andrews, 


kEFERENCES   FOR   TEACHERS  xvii 

Gambrill  and  Tall  (Longmans,  igi  i),  gives  many  more  references  and  further  information 
about  those  included  in  this  list. 

Chapter  I.   Discoverers  and  Explorers 

Sources.  —  American  History  Leaflets,  Edward  Channing  and  A.  B.  Hart,  editors. 
No.  I,  Account  by  Columbus  of  his  discovery.    No.  13,  Coronado's  Expedition. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Source  Readers,  No.  i,  p.  4  (Columbus's  account  of  his  discovery); 
p.  10  (Balboa's  discovery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean);  p.  12  (Pizarro's  conquest  of  Peru); 
p.  16  (De  Soto's  Expedition);  p.  167  (How  Raleigh's  colony  was  lost). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  i,  p.  i  (A  letter  by  Columbus  describing  his  discovery); 
No.  3,  p.  6  (Coronado's  letter  describing  to  the  king  his  explorations). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  29,  An  account  of  the  discovery  of  America  written  by  the 
son  of  Columbus;  No.  32,  Marco  Polo's  account  of  Japan  and  Java;  No.  2,3,  Columbus's 
letter  describing  his  voyage;  No.  35,  Cortes's  account  of  the  City  of  Mexico;  No.  36, 
The  Death  of  De  Soto  according  to  one  of  his  companions;  No.  89,  Founding  of  St. 
Augustine;  No.  102,  Columbus's  description  of  Cuba;  No.  119,  Raleigh's  First  Roanoke 
colony. 

Histories:  Johnson,  W.  H.,  The  World's  Discoverers.  Describes  especially  the 
search  for  the  western  route  to  the  Indies. 

Johnson,  W.  H.,  Pioneer  Spaniards  in  North  America. 

King,  Grace,  De  Soto  and  his  Men  in  the  Land  of  Florida. 

Lawler,  T.  B.,  The  Story  of  Columbus  and  Magellan,  pp.  1-13  (The  Portuguese 
explorers);   pp.  14-65  (Columbus);   pp.  94-144  (Magellan). 

Lummis,  C.  F.,  Spanish  Pioneers  (especially  the  chapters  on  Columbus,  Making 
Geography,  and  Girdle  round  the  World). 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea,  pp.  47-67  (Raleigh);  122-160  (Colum- 
bus);  161-186  (Magellan),  186-222  (Cortes). 

Ober,  F.  A.,  Heroes  of  American  History,  7  vols.,  (o)  Columbus,  the  Discoverer,  {b) 
Hernando  Cortes,  Conqueror  of  Mexico,  {c)  Pizarro  and  the  Conquest  of  Peru,  {d) 
Ferdinand  de  Soto  and  the  Invasion  of  Florida,  {e)  Vasco  Nunez  Balboa,  (/)  Ferdinand 
^Magellan,  (g)  Amerigo  Vespucci,  {h)  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot, 
and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

Winterburn,  Rosa  V.,  The  Spanish  in  the  Southwest  (The  stories  of  Cortes,  Coro- 
nado,  and  the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola) . 

Chapter  II.   Gaining  a  Foothold  on  the  Atlantic  Shore 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  i,  p.  25  (Description  of  a  sea  voyage  to 
America,  1629).  Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  5,  p.  11  (Captain  Newport's  explorations  up 
the  James  River,  1607). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  91,  The  Founding  oi  Quebec,  1608;  No.  94,  The  Discovery 
of  the  Hudson  River. 

Histories.  — Johnson,  W.  H.,  Pioneers  of  France  in  North  America  (Champlain). 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea,  pp.  1-34  (Champlain),  pp.  35-46 
(Hudson) . 

Sedgwick,  H.  D.,  Samuel  de  Champlain. 

Chapter  III.   Exploring  the  Mississy)pi  Vdlley 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  i,  pp.  55,  91,  95  (How  the  Indians  lived); 
No.  2,  pp.  85-89    (How  the  Indians  build  birch-bark  canoes). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  6,  p.  14  (Champlain's  account  of  his  expedition  against  the 
Iroquois),  No.  9,  p.  23  (Indian  life),  No.  36,  p.  96  (Description  of  La  Salle's  expedition 
written  by  one  of  his  companions). 

McKinley's  Illustrated  Topics  for  American  History,  Topic  U  9  (Description  of  La 
Salle's  expedition  written  by  one  of  his  companions). 


xviii  REFERENCES    FOR   TEACHERS 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  87,  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Indians;  No.  46,  Father 
Marquette  at  Chicago. 

Histories.  —  Baldwin,  James,  The  Discovery  of  the  Old  Northwest  (especially  for 
stories  of  Joliet,  Marquette,  La  Salle,  the  work  of  the  Jesuit  fathers,  and  the  life  of  the 
voyageurs  and  coureurs  de  bois). 

Catherwood,  Mary  H.,  Heroes  of  the  Middle  West. 

Hazard,  Blanche  E.,  and  Dutton,  S.  T.,  Indians  and  Pioneers,  pp.  36-88  (How  the 
Indians  lived). 

Johnson,  W.  H.,  French  Pathfinders  in  North  America. 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  pp.  1-15  (Marquette),  pp.  16- 
53  (La  Salle). 

Starr,  Frederick,  American  Indians. 

Thwaites,  R.  G.,  Father  Marquette;  also  same  author's  Badger  State,  24-6Q  (French 
pioneers  in  Wisconsin). 

Chapter  IV.   The  Founding  of  Virginia 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  i,  pp.  98-104  (Pocahontas  and  her  people). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  10,  p.  26  (The  requirements  of  an  emigrant  to  Virginia  in 
1634);  No.  13,  p.  2)3,  (Captain  John  Smith's  account  of  settlement  of  Virginia). 

American  History  Leaflets,  Channing  and  Hart,  editors.  No.  27  (Captain  John 
Smith's  account  of  the  settlement  of  Virginia) . 

McKinley,  Illustrated  Topics  for  American  History,  Topic  U  6  (An  accoimt  of  the 
first  representative  assembly  in  America). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  167,  Captain  John  Smith's  account  of  the  settlement  of 
Virginia. 

Histories.  —  Chandler,  J.  A.  C,  Makers  of  Virginia. 

Cooke,  J.  E.,  Stories  of  the  Old  Dominion. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Our  First  Century,  pp.  21-60. 

Johnson,  Eleanor  H.,  Boys'  Life  of  Captain  John  Smith. 

Tappan,  Eva  March,  Letters  from  Colonial  Children,  pp.  1-39  (Imaginary  letters  to 
describe  hfe  in  early  Virginia). 

Chapter  V.   Exiles  for  Conscience  Sake  at  Plymouth 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  i,  pp.  133-136  (Bradford's  account  of  the 
settlement  of  Plymouth). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  p.  39,  No.  15  (Bradford's  account  of  the  settlement  of  Plymouth). 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  i,  No.  loi,  p.  356  (Governor  Winslow's 
account  of  an  early  Thanksgiving) ;  Nos.  99  and  100,  pp.  345  and  349  (Bradford's  The 
First  Landing  and  Life  in  a  Pilgrim  Colony) . 

Channing  and  Hart,  American  History  Leaflets,  No.  29  (Bradford's  account  of 
the  settlement  of  Plymouth). 

New  York  Historical  Society,  Collections,  Second  Series,  vol.  ii,  p.  351  (A  very 
interesting  description  of  Plymouth  in  1627). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  121,  Captain  John  Smith's  Description  of  New  England; 
No.  153,  Bradford's  accoimt  of  the  Voyage  of  the  Mayflower. 

Histories,  —  Brooks,  E.  S.,  Stories  of  the  Old  Bay  State. 

Drake,  S.  A.,  Making  of  New  England. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Our  First  Century,  pp.  61-72  (Founding  Plymouth). 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea,  pp.  108-121  (Captain  John  Smith's 
description  of  New  England) . 

Tappan,  Eva  March,  Letters  from  Colonial  Children,  pp.  85-127  (Imaginary  letters 
describing  early  life  at  Plymouth) . 

Tiffany,  Nina  Moore,  Pilgrims  and  Puritans. 

Longfellow's  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  and  Webster's  Plymouth  Oration. 


REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS        xix 

Chapter  VI.   The  Beginnings  of  New  England 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  i,  p.  136  (An  account  of  the  settlement  of 
Boston). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  17,  p.  45  (A  description  of  the  settlement  of  the  towns  on  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay);  No.  28,  p.  74  (Winthrop's  Account  of  Founding  New  England);  No. 
29,  p.  77  (Description  of  a  Puritan  Church  service). 

Histories.  —  Brooks,  E.  S.,  Stories  of  the  Old  Bay  State. 

Burton,  Alma  H.,  The  Story  of  the  Indians  of  New  England. 

Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  New  England. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Our  First  Century,  pp.  73-81  (Founding  the  Massachusetts 
towns);  89-95  (Migration  from  Massachusetts  to  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island); 
pp.  96-100  (The  Confederation  of  New  England). 

Fassett,  James  H.,  Colonial  Life  in  New  Hampshire. 

Hawthorne,  Grandfather's  Chair,  pp.  5-14  (A  story  of  life  during  the  settlement  of 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  towns);  pp.  15-23  (Roger  Williams  and  other  emigrants  from 
Massachusetts) . 

Tappan,  Eva  March,  Letters  from  Colonial  Children,  pp.  156-188  (Imaginary  letters 
describing  early  life  in  New  England) . 

Tiffany,  Nina  Moore,  Pilgrims  and  Puritans. 

Chapter  VII.   Maryland,  A  Refuge  for  English  Catholics 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  i,  p.  143  (Father  White's  account  of  the 
settlement  of  Maryland). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  18,  p.  48  (A  description  of  Maryland  in  1679  by  a  traveler). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  170,  Story  of  Maryland  as  told  by  the  Colonists. 

Histories.  —  Eggleston,  Edward,  Our  First  Century,  pp.  106-111  (Early  Maryland). 

Gambrill,  J.  M.,  Leading  Events  of  Maryland  History. 

Passano,  L.  M.,  Maryland:   Stories  of  Her  People  and  Her  History. 

Tappan,  Eva  March,  Letters  from  Colonial  Children,  pp.  128-155  (Imaginary 
Letters  describing  life  in  Maryland.) 

Chapter  VIII.   Dutch  and  English  Rivalries.     Beginning  of  a  Great  State 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  p.  42,  No.  16  (A  description  of  the  settlement  of 
New  Amsterdam);  No.  22,  p.  58  (New  York  in  1678);  No.  32,  p.  85  (Life  in  a  Dutch 
town,  1647-58). 

McKinley's  Illustrated  Topics  for  American  History,  Topic  U  8  (A  description  of 
New  York  in  1670  and  how  to  settle  there). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  69,  A  Description  of  New  Netherland  in  1655. 

Histories.  — ■  Eggleston,  Edward,  Our  First  Century,  pp.  101-105  (Conquest  of  New 
Netherland  by  the  English). 

Redway,  J.  W.,  The  Making  of  the  Empire  State  (New  York) . 

Southworth,  Gertrude  V.  D.,  The  Story  of  the  Empire  State. 

Tappan,  Eva  March,  Letters  from  Colonial  Children,  pp.  188-232  (Imaginary  letters 
describing  life  in  New  Netherland) . 

Chapter  IX.   The  Second  Great  Emigration 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Soiu-ce  Readers,  No.  i,  pp.  144-148  (A  description  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1698);    No.  2,  pp.  1-3  (Letter  from  an  early  Quaker  colonist). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  23,  p.  62,  (A  proprietor's  offers  for  colonists  in  New  Jersey); 
No.  25,  p.  67  (Pennsylvania  in  1697). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  95,  A  Description  of  Pennsylvania  in  1700;  No.  171,  Penn's 
Description  of  Pennsylvania,  1683. 


XX        REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Sharpless,  Isaac,  A  Quaker  Experiment  in  Government,  pp.  84-86  (A  very  inter- 
esting letter  from  a  little  girl  describing  life  in  Pennsylvania  in  1685). 

Histories.  —  Alderman,  Edwin  A.,  A  Brief  History  of  North  Carolina. 

Chandler,  J.  A.  C,  Makers  of  Virginia  History  (Virginia  during  the  Common- 
wealth period,  1 649-1 660). 

Cooke,  J.  E.,  Stories  of  the  Old  Dominion. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Our  First  Century,  pp.  1 15-138  (Peopling  Carolina,  New  Jersey, 
and  Pennsylvania). 

Hodges,  George,  William  Penn  (In  Riverside  Biographical  Series) . 

McCorkle,  Lutie  A.,  Old  Time  Stories  of  the  Old  North  State  (North  Carolina). 

Means,  Selina  E.,  Palmetto  Stories  (South  Carolina). 

Ober,  Frederick  A.,  The  Storied  West  Indies  (Buccaneers  and  Treasure  Seekers). 

Stockton,  Frank  R.,  Stories  of  New  Jersey. 

Tappan,  Eva  March,  Letters  from  Colonial  Children,  pp.  233-88  (Imaginary  letters 
describing  early  life  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania) . 

Thomas,  A.  C,  A  History  of  Pennsylvania. 

Walton,  J.  S.,  and  Brtunbaugh,  M.  G.,  Stories  of  Pennsylvania. 

White,  H.  A.,  The  Making  of  South  Carolina. 

Chapter  X.   The  French  Rivals 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  2,  pp.  122-124  (Foimding  New  Orleans). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  37,  p.  98  (The  destruction  of  Deerfield,  1704);  No.  38, 
p.  100  (The  French  fur  trade  with  the  Indians). 

Histories.  —  Baldwin,  James,  The  Discovery  of  the  Old  Northwest,  pp.  237-250 
(French  settlements;  A  day  in  a  French  village). 

Bourinot,  J.  G.,  The  Story  of  Canada. 

Colby,  C.  W.,  Canadian  Types  of  the  Old  Regime. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Our  First  Century,  pp.  160-170  (The  French  in  America). 

Magruder,  Harriet,  A  History  of  Louisiania. 

Tappan,  Eva  March,  Letters  from  Colonial  Children,  pp.  40-84  (Imaginary  letters 
describing  life  in  early  history  of  Canada). 

Thwaites,  R.  G.,  Stories  of  the  Badger  State,  pp.  70-91  (French  days  in  Wisconsin) 

Chapter  XI.   The  Making  of  New  Frontiers 

Sources.  —  Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  ii,  No.  29,  pp.  77  (The  story 
of  the  "Poor  Palatines"  in  New  York);  No.  40,  p.  114  (Germans  in  Georgia). 

Hanna,  C.  A.,  The  Scotch-Irish,  vol.  ii,  pp.  26-28,  64-67  (Letters  from  Scotch-Irish 
colonists) . 

Histories.  —  Chapelle,  J.  H.,  Georgia  History  Stories. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Life  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  pp.  32-39  (Founding  Georgia). 

Harris,  J.  C,  Stories  of  Georgia. 

Massey,  Katherine  B.,  and  Wood,  Laura  G.     The  Story  of  Georgia. 

Tappan,  Letters  from  Colonial  Children,  pp.  289-319  (Imaginary  letters  describing 
life  in  early  Georgia). 

Walton  and  Brimibaugh,  Stories  of  Pennsylvania,  pp.  45-47  (Germans  in  Pennsyl- 
vania). 

Chapter  XII.   How  the  Colonists  Lived 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  i,  p.  67  (Traveling  in  colonial  days);  pp. 
149-152  (Plantation  life  in  Virginia);  pp.  152-155  (Puritan  amusements);  pp.  157-159 
(Slavery  in  the  colonies) ;  pp.  192-6  (Life  of  young  people  in  New  Hampshire) ;  pp.  201- 
33  (Colonial  schools).  No.  2,  pp.  32-4  (A  witchcraft  trial,  1730);  PP-  S2-6  (Colonial 
newspaper  advertisements);  pp.  59-61  (Life  in  Boston,  1750). 


REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS       xxi 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  31,  p.  82  (A  witch  trial,  1692);  p.  91,  No.  34  (Plantation  life 
in  Virginia,  1648);  No.  44,  p.  115  (Social  life  in  Philadelphia,  1744);  No.  45,  p.  117  (A 
description  of  New  York,  1748). 

McKinley's  Illustrated  Topics  for  American  History,  Topic  U  10  (Some  famous 
English  laws  affecting  trade  and  industry  in  the  colonies). 

Histories.  —  Earle,  Alice  Morse,  Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days.  Also,  same  author's 
Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  Costume  in  Colonial  Times,  and  Diary  of  Anna  Green 
Winslow,  a  Boston  School  Girl  in  i77i- 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Our  First  Century,  pp.  180-186  (Early  colonial  industry);  pp. 
187-igi  (Early  colonial  manufactures);  pp.  192-203  (Education,  religion,  and  mar- 
riages); pp.  204-218  (Life  in  the  early  colonies);  pp.  219-228  (White  and  black  slavery); 
pp.  229-238  (Dress,  sports,  and  Sunday  customs);  pp.  239-242  (Superstitions  and  witch- 
craft); pp.  243-253  (Commerce,  trade,  and  piracy). 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Life  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  pp.  39-51  (Life  in  Georgia  and 
the  Carolinas);  pp.  209-243  (Education  and  customs). 

Fassett,  J.  H.,  Colonial  Life  in  New  Hampshire. 

Plawthorne,  Grandfather's  Chair,  pp.  74-79  (The  Salem  witches);  pp.  80-85  (The 
old-fashioned  school). 

Jenks,  Tudor,  When  America  was  New. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  Chapters  4-5  (Life  in  the  Eng- 
lish colonies). 

Stone  G.  L.,  and  Fickett,  M.  G.,  Everyday  Life  in  the  Colonies. 

Chapter  XIIL   How  the  Colonies  were  GoTerned 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  50,  p.  128  (A  description  of  the  colonial  govern- 
ment of  New  York,  1748);  No.  52,  p.  132  (An  account  of  a  town-meeting  in  Boston, 
1729). 

McKinley's  Illustrated  Topics  for  American  History,  Topic  U  12  (Many  examples 
of  colonial  methods  of  punishment) . 

Histories.  —  Earle,  Alice  Morse,  Curious  Punishments  of  Bygone  Days. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Our  First  Century,  pp.  139-159  (Early  rebellion  for  the  right). 

Chapter  XIV.   Conquest  of  the  French  Colonies  in  America 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  2,  pp.  94-100  (Pontiac's  attempt  to  capture 
Detroit);  pp.  138-141  (Braddock's  defeat);  pp.  146-150  (The  capture  of  Quebec). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  39,  p.  103  (Washington's  letter  to  his  mother  describing 
Braddock's  defeat);  No.  40,  p.  105  (The  capture  of  Quebec). 

Robinson,  J.  H.,  and  Beard,  C.  A.,  Readings  in  ISIodern  European  History,  I,  No. 
62,  A  French  accoimt  of  Braddock's  defeat;   No.  64,  Quebec. 

McKinley's  Illustrated  Topics  for  American  History,  Topic  U  11  (Washington's 
journey  to  the  French  forts,  1 753-1 754,  from  his  journal). 

Histories.  —  Baldwin,  James,  The  Conquest  of  the  Old  Northwest,  pp.  11-144. 

Cooke,  J.  E.,  Stories  of  the  Old  Dominion,  pp.  94-123  (Washington,  the  surveyor); 
pp.  122-139  (Braddock's  defeat) . 

Dickson,  Marguerite,  A  Hundred  Years  of  Warfare,  1680-1789. 

I^rake,  S.  A.,  Border  Wars  of  New  England  (For  accounts  of  the  wars  of  King  Wil- 
liam and  Queen  Anne  in  the  colonies) . 

Jenks,  Tudor,  When  America  Won  Liberty. 

Longfellow's  Evangeline  (The  Acadians),  and  Hawthorne's  Grandfather's  Chair, 
pp.  118-136  (The  Acadian  exiles  and  the  Old  French  War);  well  known  and  famous 
accounts. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  6  (Struggle  for  the  Mississippi 
Valley). 


xxii  REFERENCES    FOR   TEACHERS 

Chapter  XV.   Why  the  English  Colonists  became  Revolutionists 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  2,  pp.  157-158  (Protest  of  a  town-meeting 
against  the  Stamp  Act);  pp.  158-162  (Franklin's  statements  to  Parliament  about 
taxation);  pp.  162-4  (A  newspaper  account  of  the  Boston  Tea  Party). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  53,  p.  137  (The  Boston  Tea  Party).  , 

Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  No.  65  (The  Boston  Tea  Party). 

McKinley's  Illustrated  Topics  for  American  History,  Topic  U  13  (The  work  of  the 
First  Continental  Congress,  from  its  records). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  68,  Governor  Hutchinson's  account  of  the  Boston  Tea 
Party. 

Histories.  —  Cooke,  J.  E.,  Stories  of  the  Old  Dominion,  pp.  162-218. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  Life  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  pp.  1 13-124  (James  Otis);  pp. 
145-155  (Patrick  Henry). 

Hawthorne,  Grandfather's  Chair,  pp.  152-157  (Stamp  Act);  168-181  (British  troops 
in  Boston);    189-194  (The  Boston  Tea  Party). 

Jenks,  Tudor,  When  America  Won  Liberty,  pp.  165-209. 

Tiffany,  Nina  Moore,  From  Colony  to  Commonwealth  (Massachusetts). 

Chapter  XVI.     The  Outbreak  of  War 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  2,  pp.  257-269  (A  contemporary  description 
of  the  battle  of  Lexington),  pp.  261-266  (Washington's  letter  describing  the  taking  of 
Boston) . 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  57,  p.  144  (The  battle  of  Lexington). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  47  (Washington's  account  of  the  army  at  Cambridge). 

Histories.  —  Dickson,  Marguerite,  A  Hundred  Years  of  Warfare  (i  680-1 789). 

Fiske,  John,  The  War  of  Independence. 

Hawthorne,  Grandfather's  Chair,  pp.  195-201  (The  siege  of  Boston);  202-208 
(Loyalists  going  into  exile) . 

Jenks,  Tudor,  When  America  Won  Liberty,  pp.  209-245. 

Scudder,  H.  E.,  George  Washington  (Washington's  part). 

Swett,  Sophie,  Stories  of  Maine,  pp.  197-204  (The  burning  of  Fahnouth). 

Tiffany,  Nina  Moore,  From  Colony  to  Commonwealth. 

Chapter  XVII.     The  Burth  of  a  Nation 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Sources  Readers,  No.  2,  pp.  172-175  (John  Adams's  letter  about 
Independence) . 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  58,  p.  147  (John  Adams's  account  of  drafting  the  Declaration 
of  Independence). 

Histories.  —  Collins,  E.  D.,  A  History  of  Vermont  (The  share  of  the  Green  Mountain 
settlers  in  the  Burgoyne  campaign) . 

Dickson,  Marguerite,  A  Hundred  Years  of  Warfare. 

Drake,  S.  A.,  Decisive  Events  in  American  History,  vol.  ii  (Burgoyne's  Invasion  of 
1777);  vol.  iii  (The  Campaign  of  Trenton,  1776-7). 

Fassett,  J.  H.,  Colonial  Life  in  New  Hampshire,  pp.  103-1 19  (Burgoyne's  campaign). 

Jenks,  Tudor,  When  America  Won  Liberty. 

Lodge,  H.  C,  and  Roosevelt,  T.,  Hero  Tales,  pp.  43-55  (Battle  of  Trenton);  pp. 
57-67  (Bennington). 

Price,  Lillian  M.,  Lads  and  Lassies  of  Other  Days  (Letitia  and  the  Redcoats,  being  a 
story  of  the  Revolutionary  period  in  New  Jersey). 

Redway,  J.  W.,  The  Making  of  the  Empire  State  (Burgoj^ne's  invasion). 

Scudder,  H.  E.,  George  Washington  (Washington's  part  in  the  war). 

Stockton,  F.  R.,  Stories  of  New  Jersey  (The  war  in  New  Jersey). 

Walton  and  Briunbaugh,  Stories  of  Pennsylvania  (The  war  in  Pennsylvania). 


REFERENCES    FOR   TEACHERS  xxiii 

Chapter  XVIII.   Life  in  War  Times 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  2,  pp.  101-106  (Boone's  life  on  the  frontier, 
1769-75);  pp.  218-220  (High  prices  in  paper  money);  237-242  (Camp  Ufe  at  Valley 
Forge);  p.  252  (Camp  fare  in  1779). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  43,  George  Rogers  Clark's  account  of  the  capture  of  Vin- 
cennes. 

Hulbert,  A.  B.,  Historic  Highways,  vol.  vi,  p.  107  (The  journal  of  a  western  settler). 

Histories.  —  Baldwin,  James,  Conquest  of  the  Old  Northwest,  pp.  145-178  (Clark  and 
the  winning  of  the  Northwest). 

Bass,  Florence,  Stories  of  Pioneer  Life  (Boone) . 

Dickson,  Marguerite,  A  Hundred  Years  of  Warfare. 

Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Great  West. 

Dunn,  J.  P.,  Jr.,  Indiana,  pp.  85-131  (Life  in  the  French  villages  of  the  Illinois 
country);  pp.  131-176  (George  Rogers  Clark's  expedition). 

Jenks,  Tudor,  When  iVmerica  Won  Liberty. 

Lodge  and  Roosevelt,  Hero  Tales,  pp.  19-28  (Daniel  Boone);  pp.  31-41  (George 
Rogers  Clark). 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi,  pp.  68-83  (Boone);  pp.  84-123. 
(Robertson  and  Sevier,  the  pioneers  in  Tennessee);  pp.  124-149  (George  Rogers 
Clark). 

Roosevelt,  Stories  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  3-12  (Boone  and  founding  Kentucky); 
PP-  15-51  (The  backwoodsmen  of  the  AUeghanies) ;    pp.  55-65  (Clark). 

Scudder,  H.  E.,  George  Washington. 

Chapter  XIX.   How  the  French  helped  the  Colonists 

Sources. —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  2,  pp.  244-249  (A  French  visitor's  account  of 
Washington's  camp  in  1780);  pp.  301-306  (Dangers  of  ocean  travel  during  the  Revolu- 
tion); pp.  307-309  (The  siege  of  Yorktown). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  97,  Lafayette  in  the  American  Revolution;  No.  98  Letters 
of  Washington  and  Lafayette;  No.  152,  Paul  Jones's  account  of  the  battle  between  the 
Bon  Homme  Richard  and  the  Serapis. 

Robinson  and  Beard,  No.  68,  Cornwallis's  account  of  Yorktown. 

Histories.  —  Alderman,  E.  A.,  A  Brief  History  of  North  Carolina. 

Burton,  Alma  Holman,  Lafayette,  the  Friend  of  American  Liberty. 

Chandler,  J.  A.  C,  Makers  of  Virginia  History. 

Cooke,  J.  E.,  Stories  of  the  Old  Dominion. 

Dickson,  Marguerite,  A  Hundred  Years  of  Warfare. 

Hapgood,  Hutchins,  Paul  Jones. 

Harris,  J.  C,  Stories  of  Georgia,  pp.  41-119  (The  war  in  the  South). 

Jenks,  Tudor,  When  America  Won  Liberty,  pp.  245-269  (The  Revolution,  1779- 
1783). 

Lodge  and  Roosevelt,  Hero  Tales  from  American  History,  pp.  71-78  (The  battle  of 
King's  Mountain) . 

McCorkle,  Lutie  x\ndrews,  Old  Time  Stories  of  the  Old  North  State. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  With  the  Fathers,  pp.  253-270  (Franklin  in  France);  pp.  271-280 
(How  the  British  left  New  York). 

Means,  Celina  E.,  Palmetto  Stories. 

More,  Paul  E.,  Benjamin  Franklin  (Riverside  Biographical  Series). 

Price,  Lillian  M.,  Lads  and  Lassies  of  Other  Days  (The  Legs  of  Duncan  Ketcham, 
a  story  of  the  British  evacuation  of  New  York). 

Scudder,  H.  E.,  George  Washington. 

Seawell,  Molly  E.,  Twelve  Naval  Captains  (Paul  Jones), 


xxiv       REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Chapter  XX.   The  Difficulties  of  the  New  Republic 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  3,  pp.  47-50  (The  pioneer),  pp.  84-85  (A 
tavern  in  1788),  pp.  85-87  (A  day  traveling  in  a  stage  coach),  pp.  92-96  (Traveling  by 
canoe  in  western  New  York,  1796),  pp.  97-98  (A  journey  on  an  Ohio  flatboat),  pp. 
109-117  (Early  voyages  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers),  pp.  224-228  (A  sea  voyage  in 
1784). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  67,  pp.  169-172  (Manasseh  Cutler's  history  of  the  North- 
west Ordinance). 

Histories.  —  James  Baldwin,  Conquest  of  the  Old  Northwest,  pp.  179-186  (The 
Magna  Charta  of  the  Northwest),  pp.  187-194  (The  first  American  colony  in  the  West), 
pp.  230-239  (Pioneers  in  the  Ohio  Country). 

Bolton  and  Barker,  The  Makers  of  Texas. 

S.  A.  Drake,  The  Making  of  the  Ohio  Valley  States,  pp.  133-139  (An  Old  Kentucky 
home),  142-144  (The  Ohio  pilgrims),  pp.  153-160  (Marietta),  pp.  161-167  (Founding 
Cincinnati),  pp.  196-199  (The  Western  Reserve). 

Earle,  Alice  M.,  Stage  Coach  and  Tavern  Days,  pp.  253-264  (Early  Stage- Coaches). 

Elson,  H.  W.,  A  Child's  Guide  to  American  History,  pp.  104-124  (For  an  account  of 
the  settlement  of  the  Ohio  Valley) . 

Howells,  W.  D.,  Stories  of  Ohio,  especially  pp.  153-170  (Life  in  the  backwoods), 
pp.  1 71-182  (The  first  settlements  in  Ohio). 

Lununis,  C.  F.,  Spanish  Pioneers  (Pioneer  missionaries  and  church  builders  in 
New  Mexico). 

Sexton,  E.  M.,  Stories  of  California,  pp.  8-20  (Story  of  the  ruissious). 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  chs.  7,  8,  9,  10,  and  11  (National 
boundaries  of  the  public  domain;  The  beginnings  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee; 
Organization  of  system  of  public  lands;   Peopling  of  the  Northwest. 

Stone  and  Fickett,  Days  and  Deeds  a  Hundred  Years  Ago  (Especially  "Old  Cones- 
toga  Wagon,"  and  "Early  Mail  Carrier"). 

Chapter  XXI.   Starting  the  New  Government 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  68,  pp.  172-175  (Some  objections  to  the  new 
Constitution),  No.  71,  pp.  1 81-183  (An  account  of  launching  the  new  government). 

Histories.  —  Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Ohio  Valley  States,  pp.  200-205  (Ohio 
becomes  a  state). 

Conant,  C.  A.,  Alexander  Hamilton  (Riverside  Biographical  Series). 

Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  pp.  37-53  (Framing  the  Constitu- 
tion), pp.  54-64  (Beginning  the  New  Government). 

Jenks,  T.,  When  America  Became  a  Nation,  pp.  1-15  (The  beginning  of  a  stronger 
government) . 

Scudder,  H.  E.,  Life  of  George  Washington,  pp.  219-225  (Washington  and  the  con- 
vention at  Philadelphia),  pp.  226-242  (Washington  as  President). 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  15  (Locating  the  capitol). 

Stone  and  Fickett,  Days  and  Deeds  a  Hundred  Years  Ago. 

Chapter  XXIL   The  United  States  and  Europe 

Soitrces.  —  Hart,  Sourcie  Readers,  No.  3,  pp.  45-47  (A  visit  to  Mt.  Vernon),  pp.  58- 
61  (A  Boy  Boimd  Out  to  Service). 

Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  Nos.  69,  71,  72. 

Histories.  - —  Guerber,  H.  A.,  The  Story  of  Modern  France  (The  French  Revolution). 

Harding,  S.  B.  and  W.  F.,  The  Story  of  England,  pp.  308-324  (England  and  the 
French  Revolution). 

Harris,  J.  C,  Stories  of  Georgia,  pp.  154-162  (The  cotton-gin). 


REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS       xxv 

McMaster,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  vol.  i,  pp.  95-98  (Homes 
and  clothing  of  the  laborers) . 

Mowry,  W.  A.  and  A.  M.,  American  Inventions  and  Inventors,  pp.  143-147 
(Colonial  ways  of  making  clothing),  pp.  148-152  (The  cotton-gin),  pp.  152-157 
(Samuel  Slater). 

Scudder,  H.  E.,  Life  of  George  Washington,  pp.  242-248  (End  of  life) . 

Stone  and  Fickett,  Days  and  Deeds  a  limidred  Years  Ago  (For  cotton  growing) . 

Chapter  XXIII.  Rule  of  Jefferson:  A  New  West 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  228-231  (Thomas  Jefferson),  206-209  (Lewis  and 
Clark). 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iii,  pp.  iii-333,  (The  new  capital  in 
1800). 

Old  South  Leaflets,  vol.  v.  No.  105,  A  description  of  Louisiana  in  1803. 

Histories.  —  Elson,  H.  W„  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  pp.  99-116  (Lewis  and 
Clark's  expedition). 

Hitchcock,  Ripley,  The  Louisiana  Purchase,  pp.  45-53  (Spanish  occupation  of  New 
Orleans),  pp.  54-63  (Napoleon's  Louisiana  plan),  pp.  64-94  (The  purchase  of  Louisiana), 
pp.  97-198  (Exploring  Louisiana),  pp.  199-207  (Pike's  expedition.) 

Hosmer,  J.  K.,  The  Louisiana  Purchase. 

Humphreys,  M.  G.,  Boys'  Story  of  Zebulon  Pike. 

Kingsley,  Eleanor  F.,  The  Story  of  Lewis  and  Clark. 

Lighten,  W.  R.,  Lewis  and  Clark  (In  Riverside  Biographical  Series). 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  Pioneers  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  West,  pp.  1-40  (Lewis 
and  Clark). 

Merwin,  H.  C,  Life  of  Thomas  JefiFerson  (In  the  Riverside  Biographical  Series). 

Roosevelt,  T.,  Stories  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  69-94  (Lewis  and  Clark). 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  chs.  16,  17  (Louisiana). 

Thwaites,  R.  G.,  Brief  History  of  Rocky  Mountain  Exploration. 

Chapter  XXIV.   The  United  States  and  the  Napoleonic  Wars 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  76,  pp.  194-196  (A  case  of  impressment).  No. 
81,  pp.  209-211  (An  opponent's  view  of  effect  of  Embargo),  No.  83,  pp.  214-216  (Madi- 
son's reasons  for  the  War  of  181 2). 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iii,  p.  389  (An  account  of  a  searcL^ . 

Histories.  —  Tornlinson,  E.  T.,  The  War  of  1812. 

Chapter  XXV.   The  War  of  1812 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  218-220  (The  Capture  of  Washington). 

Seawell,  Molly  E.,  Twelve  Great  Naval  Captains  (Isaac  Hull,  Oliver  Perry,  Thomas 
Macdonough,  and  James  Lawrence). 

Brown,  W.  G.,  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson  (In  the  Riverside  Biographical  Series). 

Duncan,  R.  B.,  Brave  Deeds  of  American  Sailors,  pp.  107-136  (Perry's  victory  on 
Lake  Erie),  pp.  137-172  (Story  of  the  Essex). 

Histories.  — TomWnzon,  E.  T.,  The  War  of  1812. 

Chapter  XXVI.   New  Work  and  New  Routes 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  3,  pp.  99-102  (An  early  steamboat),  pp.  102- 
104  (A  trip  on  the  Erie  Canal,  1825). 

Histories.  —  Brigham,  A.  P.,  From  Trail  to  Railway,  pp.  40-52  (Erie  Canal),  pp 
63-73  (The  route  from  Philadelphia  to  the  West),  pp.  86-97  (The  National  Road). 

Channing  and  Lansing,  Story  of  the  Great  Lakes,  251-265  (The  Erie  Canal). 


xxvi  REFERENCES    FOR   TEACHERS 

Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Ohio  Valley  States,  pp.  229-232  (The  National 
Road),  pp.  233-235  (The  first  steamboat),  pp.  236-239  (The  Erie  Canal). 

Earle,  Mrs.  Alice  M.,  Stage-Coach  and  Tavern  Days. 

Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  i,  pp.  82-95  (Fulton  and  the 
steamboat) . 

Mowry,  W.  A.  and  A.  M.,  American  Inventions  and  Inventors,  pp.  158-163  (Making 
woolen  clothing),  pp.  200-206  (Stage-coaches),  pp.  207-214  (Steamboats),  pp.  215-222 
(The  Erie  Canal). 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  12  (Journeying  to  the  Ohio 
Country);  ch.  22  (The  Cumberland  National  Road  and  the  Erie  Canal). 

Stone  and  Fickett,  Days  and  Deeds  a  Hundred  Years  Ago  (The  Conestoga  wagon. 
The  first  steamboat). 

Chapter  XXVII.   The  March  of  Population  Westward 

Sources.  — •  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  3,  pp.  132-134  (What  became  of  the  buflfalo  in 
the  Old  Northwest?),  pp.  143-153,  (The  Pioneer  and  his  Work),  No.  4,  pp.  1-3  (Life  on 
a  plantation). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  No.  92,  pp.  237-240  (A  settler  in  Illinois),  No.  91  (The  Missouri 
Compromise) , 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iii,  463-467  (People  in  the  West,  1817). 

Those  who  have  access  to  the  Reports  of  the  Mississippi  Historical  Society,  vol.  iii, 
p.  90,  and  vol.  x,  p.  305,  or  to  Phillips,  American  Industrial  Society,  vol.  ii,  p.  185,  will 
find  interesting  descriptions  of  the  life  of  the  pioneer  in  the  Old  Southwest. 

Histories.  —  Baldwin,  James,  Conquest  of  the  Old  Northwest,  pp.  213-240  (Pioneers 
in  Indiana). 

Baldwin  James,  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Brooks,  E.  S.,  True  Story  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Butterworth,  H.,  South  America:  a  History  of  the  Struggle  for  Liberty  in  the  Andean 
Republics  and  Cuba. 

Dodd,  W.  E.,  Jefferson  Davis  (Crisis  Biographies). 

Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Ohio  Valley  States,  pp.  239-244  (Indiana),  245-246 
(Emigrants  on  the  prairies),  246-254  (Illinois  and  Michigan). 

Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  i,  pp.  148-166  (The  Missouri 
Compromise),  pp.  167-192  (The  Monroe  Doctrine). 

Howells,  W.  D.,  Stories  of  Ohio,  pp.  201-21 1  (Roads  and  canals  of  Ohio). 

Lodge  and  Roosevelt,  Hero  Tales,  pp.  323-335  (Early  life  of  Lincoln). 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  pp.  170-184  (Lincoln's  early  life) . 

Moores,  C.  W.,  The  Life  of  Lincoln. 

Musick,  J.  R.,  Stories  of  Missouri. 

Nicolay,  Helen,  The  Boys'  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Perry,  Frances  M.,  and  Elson,  Henry  W.,  Four  Great  American  Presidents,  vol.  i. 

Riley,  F.  L.,  School  History  of  Mississippi. 

Sparhawk,  Frances  Campbell,  A  Life  of  Lincoln  for  Boys. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  13  (Pioneer  life  in  the  Ohio 
Valley),  ch  18  (The  Gulf  Possessions). 

Thompson,  Maurice,  Stories  of  Indiana,  pp.  95-104  (Flat-boat  days),  pp.  82-94 
(An  itinerant  preacher),  pp.  208-227  (Canals  and  plank  roads). 

Chapter  XXVIII.   Government  by  the  People 

Sources.  — Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  3,  pp.  28-31  (Anecdotes  of  Daniel  Webster). 

Histories.  —  Brown,  Wm.  G.,  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson  (Riverside  Biographical 
Series) . 

Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  i,  pp.  223-240  (An  old  tiin? 
political  campaigii). 


REFERENCES    FOR   TEACHERS  xxvii 

Guerber,  H.  A.,  The  Story  of  France  (Reform  period  in  France). 

Harding,  S.  B.  and  W.  F.,  The  Story  of  England,  pp.  325-336  (The  period  of 
reform  in  England). 

Perry,  Frances  M.,  and  Elson,  Henry  W.,  Four  Great  American  Presidents,  vol.  i 
Qacks'on) . 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation. 

Chapter  XXIX.   Problems  of  the  New  Democracy 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  3,  pp.  329-334  (College  life  in  1820),  pp.  341- 
347»  359-362  (Rural  Schools). 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iii,  pp.  561-571  (Railroads  and  travel). 

Histories.  —  Brown,  Andrew  Jackson  (In  Riverside  Biographical  Series). 

Brigham,  A.  P.,  From  Trail  to  Railway,  pp.  53-62  (Beginning  of  the  New  York 
Central  Railroad),  pp.  98-110  (Beginning  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio). 

Howells,  W.  D.,  Stories  of  Ohio,  pp.  201-217  (Early  railroads  in  Ohio). 

Mowry,  W.  A.  and  A.  M.,  American  Inventions  and  Inventors,  pp.  223-228  (Rail- 
roads) . 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  14  (Evidences  of  the  higher 
life  of  the  people),  ch.  23  (Steamboats  and  railroads  in  the  Middle  West). 

Stone  and  Fickett,  Days  and  Deeds  a  Hundred  Years  Ago  (The  first  locomotive). 

Thompson,  M.,  Stories  of  Indiana,  pp.  228-247  (Birth  and  growth  of  free  schools). 

Williams,  S.,  Some  Successful  Americans  (Peter  Cooper,  Mary  Lyon,  Horace 
Greeley) . 

Charles  Dickens,  Little  Dorritt  (a  story  of  imprisonment  for  debt  in  England),  and 
Edward  Eggleston,  Hoosier  Schoolmaster  (a  story  of  the  rural  schools  of  America),  are 
famous  works  of  fiction. 

Chapter  XXX.   Neighboring  Countries  Bring  on  New  Questions 

Sources. — ^Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  268-271  (On  the  Oregon  Trail,  1846). 

Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  3,  pp.  166-168  (On  the  Oregon  Trail). 

Histories.  —  Bolton,  H.  E.,  and  Barker,  E.  C.     With  the  Makers  of  Texas. 

Davis,  Mary  E.,  Under  Six  Flags:  The  Story  of  Texas. 

Hitchcock,  R.,  The  Louisiana  Purchase,  pp.  208-238  (The  trails). 

Littlejohn,  Texas  History  Stories,  pp.  81-103  (Stephen  Austin),  103-133  (Sam 
Houston),  133-147  (David  Crockett),  pp.  151-163  (The  Alamo),  175-193  (Story  of  San 
Jacinto). 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  Pioneers  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  West,  165-200  (Park- 
man's  life  in  an  Indian  village  of  the  West). 

Musick,  J.  R.,  Stories  of  Missouri. 

Parkman,  Oregon  Trail  (Several  editions,  especially  one  edited  by  William  EUery 
Leonard) . 

Reynolds,  J.  S.,  Makers  of  Arkansas  History. 

Roosevelt,  T.,  Stories  of  the  Great  West  (The  story  of  the  Alamo) . 

Sabin,  Henr>',  The  Making  of  Iowa. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  American  People,  ch.  25  (The  Oregon  expansion),  ch. 
26  (The  acquisition  of  Texas) . 

Chapter  XXXI.   How  the  United  States  "Won  the  Pacific  Ocean 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  276-279  (The  gold  fields  in  California). 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iv,  p.  11  (On  the  coast  of  California, 
183s),  p.  26  (A  young  oflBcer  in  the  War  with  Mexico  —  Ulysses  Simpson  Grant), 
p.  28  (The  capture  of  the  City  of  Mexico),  p.  43  (A  Forty-niner). 


xxviii  REFERENCES    FOR   TEACHERS 

Histories.  —  Bolton  and  Barker,  With  the  Makers  of  Texas. 

Davis,  Mary  E.,  Under  Six  Flags:  The  Story  of  Texas. 

Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  248-288. 

Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  i,  241-262  (Discovery  of  gold 
in  California. 

McMurry,  C.  A.,  Pioneers  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Great  West,  pp.  60-94 
(Over  the  Oregon  and  California  Trail),  94-113  (Discovery  of  gold,  Trip  to  California 
in  '49). 

Sexton,  Ella  M.,  Stories  of  California,  pp.  37-57  (Days  of  gold  and  the  "Forty- 
niners"),  57-67  (How  Polly  Elliott  came  across  the  plains),  pp.  67-79  (Building  the 
Overland  Road). 

Sparks,  E.E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  chs.  27,  28  (The  acquisition  of 
California  and  discovery  of  gold) . 

Winterburn,  Rosa  V.,  The  Spanish  in  the  Southwest. 

Chapter  XXXII.   A  Great  Domain,  New  Tools  and  Willing  Hands 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  3,  pp.  265-270  (Reception  of  Perry  in  Japan, 
1852),  No.  4,  pp.  9-13  (A  Southern  home),  pp.  29-39,  57-58  (Buying  one's  self),  pp. 
41-45  (A  poor  white's  opinion  of  slavery). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  242-244  (Arguments  for  abolition  of  slavery),  pp.  244-248 
(A  defense  of  slavery),  pp.  255-257  (A  slave's  story),  pp.  260-263  (A  fugitive's  story). 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iii,  pp.  571-573  (The  first  telegraph 
line) . 

Histories.  —  Channing,  E.,  and  Lansing,  M.  F.,  The  Story  of  the  Great  Lakes,  pp. 
266-282  (The  G^eat  Lakes  in  1840),  pp.  283-298  (Coming  of  the  railroad  to  Lake 
Erie),  pp.  330-355  (The  great  industries  of  the  Lakes). 

Mowry,  W.  A.  and  A.  M.,  American  Inventions  and  Inventors,  pp.  51-57  (Matches), 
81-84  (Gas),  117-123  (The  new  farm  implements),  pp.  172-177  (The  sewing-machine), 
pp.  265-277  (The  telegraph). 

Reynolds,  J.  S.,  Makers  of  Arkansas  History. 

Sabin,  Henry,  The  Making  of  Iowa. 

Thwaites,  R.  G.,  Stories  of  the  Badger  State  (Wisconsin). 

Williams,  S.,  Some  Successful  Americans  (Cyrus  McCormick). 

Chapter  XXXIII.   The  Question  of  Slavery 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Reader,  No.  4,  pp.  51-56  (The  Underground  Railroad), 
pp.  59-67  (Fugitives),  pp.  71-74  (John  Brown's  raid). 

Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  279-281  (The  Compromise  of  1850),  pp.  282-^284  (Rescue  of 
a  slave),  pp.  287-289  (The  Kansas  troubles),  pp.  294-296  (John  Brown's  last  speech). 

Histories.  —  Alderman,  E.  A.,  A  Brief  History  of  North  Carolina. 

Brown,  W.  G.,  Stephen  A.  Douglas  (In  Riverside  Biographical  Series). 

Channing  and  Lansing,  Story  of  the  Great  Lakes  (Lincoln  and  Douglas  in  Chicago) . 

Dodd,  W.  E.,  Life  of  Jefferson  Davis. 

Drake,  S.  A.,  The  Making  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  290-307  (The  Struggle  for  Kansas). 

Elson,  H.  W.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  i,  pp.  263-293  (The  Underground 
Railroad),  pp.  294-309  (The  Kansas  and  Nebraska  Bill),  pp.  310-336  (The  Lincobi- 
Douglas  debate). 

Howells,  W.  D.,  Stories  of  Ohio,  pp.  218-227  (Fugitive  slaves  and  the  Underground 
Railroad) . 

Harris,  J.  C,  Stories  of  Georgia,  250-271  (The  slave  question  in  Georgia). 

Means,  C.  E.,  Palmetto  Stories  (South  Carolina). 

Moores,  C.  W.,  The  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Massey  and  Wood,  The  Story  of  Georgia, 


REFERENCES    FOR   TEACHERS  xxix 

NIcolay,  Helen,  The  Boys'  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Riley,  F.  L.,  School  History  of  Mississippi. 

Sparhawk,  Frances  C,  A  Life  of  Lincoln  for  Boys. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  29  (The  Struggle  for  Kansas 
and  Nebraska) . 

Williams,  S.,  Successful  Americans  (Abraham  Lincob,  Horace  Greeley,  Alexander 
H.  Stephens,  and  Henry  Clay) . 

Chapter  XXXIV.   A  Divided  Nation 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  303-305  (Rousing  the  North),  pp.  308-311  (The 
Southern  soldier). 

Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  4,  pp.  119-124  (A  soldier's  life  in  camp),  pp.  136-9  (Off 
for  the  front),  pp.  139-144  (The  innocent  deserter),  pp.  144-155  (The  scout),  pp.  156- 
159  (The  guilty  deserter),  and  many  other  stories,  especially  pp.  220-230  (On  tent 
Ufe). 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iv,  pp.  180-182  (Secession  in  Mississippi), 
pp.  290-293  {At  the  White  House),  and  others,  especially  on  the  life  of  the  soldiers. 

Histories.  —  Baldwin,  James,  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Brooks,  E.  S.,  True  Story  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Dodd,  W.  E.,  Life  of  Jefferson  Davis,  pp.  215-225  (Formation  of  the  New  Republic). 

Elson,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  1-24  (Election  of  i860),  26-46 
(Secession  of  the  southern  states) . 

Harris,  J.  C,  Stories  of  Georgia,  pp.  272-296  (Georgia  during  the  Civil  War). 

Moores,  C.  W.,  The  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

Nicolay,  Helen,  Boys'  Life  of  Lincoln. 

Riley,  F.  L.,  School  History  of  Mississippi. 

Sparhawk,  Life  of  Lincoln  for  Boys. 

Chapter  XXXV.  Beginning  of  Civil  War 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  305-308  (The  battle  of  Bull  Run),  pp.  311-312 
(Supplies  for  the  wounded) . 

Hart,  History  told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iv,  pp.  319-323  (President  Davis's  diffi- 
culty in  obtaming  supplies  for  his  armies),  pp.  309-314  (Descriptions  of  the  Battle  of 
Bull  Run),  pp.  314-319  (A  French  traveler  tells  of  Northern  preparations  for  the 
War). 

Histories.  —  Channing  and  Lansing,  Story  of  the  Great  Lakes,  pp.  317-329  (The 
Great  Lakes  in  the  Civil  War). 

Elson,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  79-94  (Beginning  of  the  War), 
pp.  131-135  (The  blockade) . 

The  biographies  of  Lincoln  and  Davis  mentioned  in  the  preceding  chapter,  and  the 
histories  of  the  states  given  in  that  and  earlier  chapters,  will  furnish  further  material  for 
reading. 

Chapter  XXXVI.   Story  of  Victory  and  Defeat 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  3 13-31 5  (Farragut  at  New  Orleans),  pp.  315-318, 
327-329  (The  story  of  emancipation  of  slaves),  pp.  320-323  (Cave  life  in  Vicksburg), 
pp.  323-327  (The  battle  of  Gettysburg). 

Hart,  Source  Readers,  No.  4,  pp.  293-299  (Bridging  a  river),  pp.  399-403  (A  nurse's 
experience) . 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iv,  pp.  244-347  (Home  life  of  a  Southern 
lady),  pp.  236-237  (The  Northern  women),  pp.  368-371  (Taking  of  Vicksburg),  pp.  372- 
376  (Pickett's  Charge  at  Gettysburg),  pp.  376-381  (The  draft  riot  in  New  York  City). 

Histories.  —  Brooks,  E.  S.,  True  Story  of  U.  S.  Grant. 


XXX       REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS 

Duncan,  R.  B.,  Brave  Deeds  of  American  Sailors,  pp.  173-185  {Monitor  and  Merri- 
mac). 

Elson,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  95-128  (The  battle  of  Gettys- 
bvirg). 

Lodge  and  Roosevelt,  Hero  Tales  from  American  History,  pp.  185-196  (Battle  of 
the  Merrimac  a,nd  Monitor,  pp.  213-223  (The  death  of  Stonewall  Jackson),  pp.  225-237 
(The  charge  at  Gettysburg),  pp.  237-248  (The  capture  of  Vicksburg). 

The  biographies  and  special  state  histories  given  in  preceding  chapters  furnish  other 
stories  on  this  period  of  the  war.  For  example,  M.Thompson,  Stories  of  Indiana,  pp. 
247-265  (A  raid  into  a  northern  state)  and  W.  D.  Thompson,  Stories  of  Ohio,  pp.  228- 
257  (Ohio  in  the  Civil  War). 

Chapter  XXXVII.    Conquering  a  Peace 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  329-333  (Lee's  surrender  and  the  assassination 
of  Lincoln). 

Hart,  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iv,  pp.  437-440  (Grant's  account  of  Lee's 
surrender) . 

Histories.  —  Duncan,  Brave  Deeds  of  American  Sailors,  pp.  186-200  (Farragut  in 
Mobile  Bay). 

Lodge  and  Roosevelt,  Hero  Tales  from  American  History,  pp.  303-323  (Farragut 
at  Mobile  Bay),  pp.  323-335  (Abraham  Lincoln). 

See  Century  Magazine,  April,  1896,  for  one  of  the  best  accounts  of  the  assassination 
of  Lincoln. 

Chapter  XXXVIII.   Peace  and  its  Problems 

Sources.  — Hsivt,  Source  Book,  pp.  336-339  (Conditions  in  the  South,  1865),  pp. 
339-342  (A  negro  school),  pp.  342-344  (A  southerner's  advice  on  reconstruction),  pp. 
344-351  (Reconstruction  by  Congress  and  its  failure). 

Histories.  —  Harris,  J.  C,  Stories  of  Georgia,  pp.  297-306  (Reconstruction). 

Elson,  W.  H.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  149-182  (A  new  prob- 
lem—  reconstruction),  pp.  183-218  (Trial  of  a  President). 

Riley,  F.  L.,  School  History  of  Mississippi. 

Chapter  XXXIX.   Neighbors  and  Rivals 

Sources.  —  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  No.  261  (Proclamation  of  the  German 
Empire) . 

Histories.  —  Elson,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  218-238  (Settlement 
of  a  great  dispute  —  The  Alabama  claims). 

Guerber,  H.  A.,  The  Story  of  Modern  France,  pp.  302-335  (How  France  became  a 
republic) . 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  35  (Alaska,  or  the  beginnings 
of  a  colonial  system) . 

Chapter  XL.   The  Prairie  States 

Histories.  —  Brigham,  A.  P.,  Commercial  Geography  (Description  of  ranching,  wheat 
growing,  milling,  and  packing). 

Hitchcock,  R.,  The  Louisiana  Purchase,  pp.  255-270  (The  day  of  the  pony  express). 

Price,  O.  W.,  The  Land  We  Live  In.  Various  topics,  especially  pp.  100-129  (Farms 
of  the  nation),  and  pp.  67-100  (A  nation's  forests  and  foresters). 

Rocheleau,  W.  F.,  Great  American  Industries.  Second  Book,  pp.  154-166  (Wheat 
Farming),  pp.  166-178  (Milling). 

Roosevelt,  T.  Stories  of  the  Great  West,  pp.  109-254  (Ranching). 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  30  (A  transcontinental  rail- 
road) . 


REFERENCES  FOR  TEACHERS       xxxi 

The  magazines  contain  many  articles  on  these  subjects.  For  example,  The  Arena, 
Vol.  XXV,  p.  373,  Harper's  Magazine,  vol.  60,  p.  52g  (Dakota  wheat  farming),  and 
vol.  76,  pp.  ss6,  768,  869  (Studies  of  the  West),  The  World's  Work.  VII,  4232  (Life  in 
the  corn  belt). 

Chapter  XLI.   New  Methods  of  Working 

Histories.  — ■  Channing  and  Lansing,  The  Story  of  the  Great  Lakes,  pp.  2>i^-2>S^ 
(Great  industries  of  the  Lakes),  pp<  356-374  (Shipping  on  the  Lakes),  pp.  374-385 
(The  development  of  the  city) . 

Baker,  R.  S.,  The  Boy's  Book  of  Inventions. 

Brigham,  Commercial  Geography. 

Burns,  Elmer,  E.,  The  Story  of  Inventions. 

Carpenter,  F.  O.,  Foods  and  Their  Uses. 

Fournier,  E.  E.,  Wonders  of  Physical  Science,  especially  pp.  136-149  (Telephone), 
pp.  149-159  (Electric  Light),  pp.  170-178  (Wireless  Telegraph),  pp.  190-201  (The 
Aeroplane) . 

Meadowcraft,  W.  H.,  Boy's  Life  of  Edison. 

Mowry,  W.  A.  and  A.  M.,  American  Inventions  and  Inventors,  pp.  77-80  (Kero- 
sene), pp.  81-84  (Gas),  pp.  85-89  (Electric  lighting),  pp.  278-285  (The  cable),  pp.  286- 
291   (The  telephone). 

Rocheleau,  W.  F.,  Great  American  Industries  (How  minerals  are  obtained). 

Thompson,  M.,  Stories  of  Indiana,  pp.  279-296  (An  account  of  the  discovery  and 
use  of  gas  in  Indiana) . 

Williams,  A.,  How  it  is  made  (Descriptions  of  many  industries). 

Chapter  XLII.   The  New  South 

Histories.  —  Brigham,  A.  P.,  Commercial  Geography  (Descriptions  of  industries  of 
the  South). 

Harris,  J.  C,  Stories  of  Georgia,  pp.  307-315  (The  New  South). 

Hart,  A.  B.,  The  Southern  South. 

Price,  O.  W.,  The  Land  We  Live  in. 

Riley,  F.  L.,  School  History  of  Mississippi. 

The  Magazines  have  descriptions  of  the  South.  For  example,  the  articles  in  the 
Review  of  Reviews,  vol.  xxxiii,  pp.  177-215  (especially  p.  200,  How  Galveston  secured 
protection),  and  The  World's  Work,  vol.  xiv,  pp.  8926-9042  (Descriptions  of  the  New 
South). 

The  Life  of  Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar  (one  written  by  Edward  Mayes),  and  Up  from 
Slavery  by  Booker  Washington  (an  autobiography)  are  of  great  interest. 

Chapter  XLIII.   The  Last  Barriers 

Histories.  —  Brigham,  A.  P.,  Commercial  Geography. 

Paxson,  F.  L.,  The  Last  American  Frontier  (especially  for  Indian  wars  and  building 
of  the  Pacific  railroads) . 

Price,  O.  W.,  The  Land  We  Live  In. 

Sexton,  E.  M.,  Stories  of  California,  pp.  75-83  (Wheat  fields),  pp.  82-102  (Fruit 
growing). 

There  are  many  magazine  articles  on  these  subjects.  For  example.  The  Natiqnal 
Geographical  Magazine,  vol.  xvii,  p.  82  (Winning  the  West),  p.  loi  (Arizona  and  New 
Mexico),  p.  103  (Oklahoma),  Review  of  Reviews,  xliii,  p.  460  (The  Roosevelt  dam). 

The  World's  Work,  vol.  ix,  p.  5827  (Building  a  wonderful  community),  xii,  p.  7603 
(Oklahoma),  xii,  p.  7886  (Desert  farming  without  irrigation),  xv,  p.  9691  (The  real 
conquest  of  the  West),  xv,  p.  10,  147  (Seizing  the  desert's  last  stronghold),  xxi,  p.  13,- 
928  (Ten  years  of  Oklahoma). 


xxxii  kEFERENCES    EOR   TEACHERS 

Chapter  XLIV.   Laborers  of  a  Great  Nation 

Readings  on  the  recent  immigrants.  —  Antin,  Mary.  The  Promised  Land  (The  auto- 
biography of  an  immigrant) . 

Riis,  J.  A.,  The  Making  of  an  American. 
Crowell,  K.  R.,  Coming  Americans. 

Chapter  XLV.   New  Methods  of  Government 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  352-355  (The  Tweed  ring). 
Histories.  —  Elson,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  263-286   (A  great 
presidential  contest,  1876),  pp.  286-325  (The  death  of  President  Garfield). 
Dole,  C.  F.,  The  American  Citizen. 
Dunn,  A.  W.,  The  Community  and  the  Citizen. 
Haskin,  F.  J.,  The  American  Government. 
Hill,  Mabel,  Lessons  for  Junior  Citizens. 
Reinsch,  Paul  S.,  The  Young  Citizen's  Reader. 
Richman,  Julia,  and  Wallach,  Isabel  R.,  Good  Citizenship. 

Chapter  XLVI.   The  New  Education 

Histories.  —  Hill,  Mabel,  Lessons  for  Junior  Citizens,  pp.  53-70  (School  system), 
154-168,  (City  planning,  etc.). 

The  current  magazines  have  much  material  on  this  subject.  For  example,  see  the 
World^s  Work,  May,  191 2,    p.    102  (Country  schools   for  country  children);   August, 

1912,  p.  460  (The  country  school  of  to-morrow);    December,  1912,  p.  143  (Wisconsin's 
agricultural  high  schools);  April,   1913,  p.  695  (Teaching  real  life  in  school);  April, 

1913,  p.  699  (University  that  runs  a  state). 

Chapter  XL VII.   The  Republic  and  the  Larger  World 

Sources.  —  Hart,  Source  Book,  pp.  369-372  (A  foreigner's  opinion  of  Americans). 

Histories.  —  Duncan,  R.  B.,  Brave  Deeds  of  American  Sailors,  pp.  272-285  (Dewey 
at  Manila). 

Elson,  W.  H.,  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  ii,  pp.  352-401  (The  Spanish- 
American  War). 

Gulliver,  Lucile,  The  Friendship  of  Nations  (On  the  Peace  movement). 

Haskin,  F.  J.,  The  American  Government,  pp.  362-373  (The  Pan-American  Union). 

Kirkman,  F.  B.,  The  Growth  of  Greater  Britain  (The  British  colonies). 

Knapp,  A.,  Story  of  the  Philippines  (vol.  xi  in  The  World  and  Its  Peopde  Series). 

MacClintock,  S.,  The  Philippines  —  A  Geographical  Reader. 

Morris,  Chas.,  Our  Island  Empire  (Account  of  resources  and  people  of  Hawaii,  Philip- 
pines, and  Porto  Rico). 

Seabury,  J.  B.,  Porto  Rico  (In  the  World  and  its  People  Series). 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  Expansion  of  the  American  People,  ch.  36  (Securing  colonies). 

Twomby,  A.  S.,  Hawaii  and  its  People. 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 

In  Congress,  July  4,  1776 
A  Declaration  by  the  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  Congress 

Assembled 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people 
to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with  another,  and 
to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station  to 
which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to 
the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes  which 
impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident:  That  all  men  are  created  equal; 
that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable  rights;  that 
among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  That,  to  secure 
these  rights,  governments  are  instituted  among  men,  deriving  their  just  powers 
from  the  consent  of  the  governed;  that,  whenever  any  form  of  government 
becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to 
abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a  new  government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such 
principles,  and  organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most 
likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that 
governments  long  established  should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient 
causes;  and  accordingly  all  experience  hath  shown  that  mankind  are  more  dis- 
posed to  suffer  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing 
the  forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and 
usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same  object,  evinces  a  design  to  reduce 
them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such 
government,  and  to  provide  new  guards  for  their  future  security.  Such  has 
been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonies;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which 
constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  systems  of  government.  The  history  of 
the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpa- 
tions, all  having  in  direct  object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny  over 
these  states.     To  prove  this,  let  facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary  for  the 
public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and  pressing  im- 
portance, unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  assent  should  be  obtained; 
and,  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large  districts 

xzxiii 


xxxiv         DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE 

of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  representation  in 
the  legislature,  —  a  right  inestimable  to  them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only- 
He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncomfortable, 
and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public  records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his  measure. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing,  with  manly 
firmness,  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be 
elected,  whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of  annihilation,  have  returned 
to  the  people  at  large  for  their  exercise;  the  state  remaining,  in  the  mean  time, 
exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  invasions  from  without  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  states;  for  that  pur- 
pose obstructing  the  laws  for  the  naturalization  of  foreigners,  refusing  to  pass 
others  to  encourage  their  migration  hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new 
appropriations  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his  assent  to 
laws  for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices, 
and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of  officers 
to  harass  our  people  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  without  the  consent 
of  our  legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and  superior  to,  the 
civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign  to  our 
constitutions  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws,  giving  his  assent  to  their  acts 
of  pretended  legislation: 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us; 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  for  any  murders  which 
they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  states; 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world; 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent; 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury; 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas,  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offenses; 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neighboring  province, 
establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its  boundaries, 
so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same 
absolute  rule  into  these  colonies; 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  aboUshing  our  most  valuable  laws,  and  altering, 
fundamentally,  the  forms  of  our  governments; 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested  with 
power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  protection  and 
waging  war  against  us. 


DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE  xxxv 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burned  our  towns,  and  de- 
stroyed the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries  to  complete 
the  works  of  death,  desolation,  and  tyranny  already  begun  with  circumstances 
of  cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally 
unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high  seas,  to 
bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become  the  executioners  of  their  friends  and 
brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrection  among  us,  and  has  endeavored  to  bring 
on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  Indian  savages,  whose  known 
rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress  in  the  most 
humble  terms;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  answered  only  by  repeated 
injury.  A  prince  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may 
define  a  tyrant  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  our  attentions  to  our  British  brethren.  We 
have  warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their  legislature  to  extend 
an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to  their 
native  justice  and  magnanimity;  and  we  have  conjured  them,  by  the  ties  of 
our  common  kindred,  to  disavow  these  usurpations,  which  would  inevitably 
interrupt  our  connections  and  correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to 
the  voice  of  justice  and  consanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the 
necessity  which  denounces  our  separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest 
of  mankind,  enemies  in  war,  in  peace  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  General 
Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  recti- 
tude of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  good  people 
of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare,  That  these  united  colonies  are, 
and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states;  that  they  are  absolved 
from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  be- 
tween them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved; 
and  that,  as  free  and  independent  states,  they  have  full  power  to  levy  war, 
conclude  peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  do  all  other  acts 
and  things  which  independent  states  may  of  right  do.  And,  for  the  support 
of  this  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence, 
we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

We  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect  union, 
estabUsh  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  defence, 
promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and 
our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  estabUsh  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States 
of  America. 

ARTICLE  1 

Section  I.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Represent- 
atives. 

Sect.  II.  i.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the  electors 
in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he 
shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their  respective 
numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free 
persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding 
Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration 
shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner 
as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed 
one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  representa- 
tive; and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire 
shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Provi- 
dence Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five.  New  York  six.  New  Jersey  four,  Penn- 
sylvania eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five, 
South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the  Execu- 
tive authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and  other 
officers;   and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Sect.  III.     i.   The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES     xxxvii 

Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six  years;    and 
each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the  first 
election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes.  The 
seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the 
second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the 
third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen 
every  second  year;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation  or  otherwise,  during 
the  recess  of  the  legislature  of  any  State,  the  Executive  thereof  may  make 
temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which  shall 
then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shaU  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall 
not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the  Senate, 
but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  ofiicers,  and  also  a  President  pro 
tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office 
of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments.  When 
sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside:  and  no  person 
shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to 
removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor, 
trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States:  but  the  party  convicted  shall  never- 
theless be  hable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and  punishment. 
according  to  law. 

Sect.  IV.  i.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators 
and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  legislature  thereof; 
but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except 
as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such  meeting 
shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint 
a  different  day. 

Sect.  V.  i.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns  and 
quahfications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  to  do  business;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day, 
and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such 
manner,  and  under  such  penalties,  as  each  house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its  members 
for  disorderly  behavior,  and  with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time 
publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy; 


xxxviii     CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house  on  any  question  shall, 
at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the  consent 
of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than  that 
in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Sect.  VI.  i.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensa- 
tion for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of 
the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases  except  treason,  felony  and  breach 
of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session 
of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same;  and 
for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any 
other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was 
elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been 
increased,  during  such  time;  and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United 
States  shall  be  a  member  of  either  house  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

Sect.  VII.  i.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of 
Representatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments  as 
on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and  the 
Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return  it  with 
his  objections  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter 
the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after 
such  reconsideration  two  thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it 
shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall 
likewise  be  reconsidered,  and,  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall 
become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against 
the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.  If  any  bill 
shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after 
it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if 
he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return, 
in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of 
adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  and 
before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved 
by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, according  to  the  rules  and  hmitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Sect.  VIII.     The  Congress  shall  have  power 

I.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts 
and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States; 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES     xxxix 

but  all  duties,  imposts  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United 
States; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 

4.  To  estabhsh  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on  the 
subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix 
the  standard  of  weights  and  measures; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and  current 
coin  of  the  United  States; 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing  for  limited 
times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings 
and  discoveries; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas 
and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  rieprisal,  and  make  rules 
concerning  captures  on  land  and  water; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that  use 
shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union, 
suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and  for 
governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and 
the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by 
Congress; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over  such  dis- 
trict (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  States, 
and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  exercise  Hke  authority  over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent 
of  the  legislature  of  the  State,  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of 
forts,  magazines,  arsenals,   dock-yards,   and  other  needful    buildings;  —  and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into 
execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Constitu- 
tion in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  office 
thereof. 

Sect.  IX.  i.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the 
States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the 


xl         CONSTITUTION   OF   THE  UNITED   STATES 

Congress  prior  to  the  year  1808;    but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such 
importation,  not  exceeding  $10  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless 
when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation,  or  other  direct,  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion  to 
the  census  or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue 
to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another:  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to,  or 
from,  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence  of  ap- 
propriations made  by  law;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the  receipts 
and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States:  and  no  person 
holding  any  ofHce  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind 
whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

Sect.  X.  i.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation; 
grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make 
anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill 
of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or 
grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts  or 
duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for 
executing  its  inspection  laws:  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts, 
laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of 
the  United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control 
of  the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage, 
keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or  com- 
pact with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless 
actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE  II 

Section  I.  i.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four 
years,  and  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same  term, 
be  elected  as  follows: 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof  may 
direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators  and  Repre- 
sentatives to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress;  but  no  Senator 
or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United 
States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 


V 


CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES        xli 

[The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  two 
persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the 
number  of  votes  for  each;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit 
sealed  to  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President 
of  the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  thea 
be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the 
President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  ap- 
pointed; and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an 
equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately 
choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority, 
then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  house  shall  in  like  manner  choose 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by 
States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States, 
and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every  case, 
after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or 
more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the 
Vice-President.] 

3.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and  the 
day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes;  which  day  shall  be  the  same  through- 
out the  United  States, 

4.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office 
of  President;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not 
have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident 
within  the  United  States. 

5.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office  or  of  his  death,  resigna- 
tion, or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same 
shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and  the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for 
the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such 
officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall 
be  elected. 

6.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services,  a  compensa- 
tion, which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  /or 
which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period 
any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

7.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  following 
oath  or  affirmation:  —  "I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully 
execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my 
ability,  preserve,  protect  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 


xlii        CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 

Sect.  II.  i.  The  President  shall  be  commander  in  chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  mihtia  of  the  several  States,  when  called 
into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in 
writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon  any 
subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have  power 
to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offences  against  the  United  States,  except 
in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate, 
to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  present  concur;  and  he 
shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall 
appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not 
herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  estabhshed  by  law:  but  the 
Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they 
think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of 
departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may  happen 
during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which  shall  expire  at 
the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Sect.  III.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  of 
the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures 
as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between 
them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such 
time  as  he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public 
ministers;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall 
commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Sect.  IV.  The  President,  Vice-President  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  on  conviction 
of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III   . 

Section  I.  i.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in 
one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  Congress  may  from  time  to 
time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior 
courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times, 
receive  for  their  services,  a  compensation,  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during 
their  continuance  in  office. 

Sect.  II.  i.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made 
or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority;  —  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassa- 
dors, other  public  ministers  and  consuls;  —  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  jurisdic- 
tion;—  to  controversies  to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party;  —  to 
controversies  between  two  or  more  States; — between  a  State  and  citizens  of 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES      xliii 

another  State;  —  between  citizens  of  different  States;  —  between  citizens  of 
the  same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a 
State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have 
original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  ex- 
ceptions, and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury; 
and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have  been 
committed;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at 
such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Sect.  III.  i.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying 
war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 
No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses 
to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason,  but 
no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture  except 
during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV 

Section  I.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public 
acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress 
may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and 
proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Sect.  II.  i.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges 
and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime,  who 
shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall  on  demand  of  the 
executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be 
removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

5.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof, 
escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein, 
be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of 
the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

Sect.  III.  i.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union; 
but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other 
State;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  parts 
of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures  of  the  States  concerned  as  well 
as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful  rules 
and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the 
United  States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to 
prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 


xUv      CONSTITUTION  OF   THE  UNITED   STATES 

Sect,  IV.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union 
a  repubUcan  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  in- 
vasion; and  on  appHcation  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when  the 
legislature  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it  necessary, 
shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  application  of  the 
legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  pro- 
posing amendments,  which,  in  either  case  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses, as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three 
fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the 
one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress;  provided 
that  no  amendments  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  afifect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the 
ninth  section  of  the  first  article;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall 
be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the  adoption 
of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under  this 
Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be  made 
in  pursuance  thereof;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land;  and  the 
judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or 
laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  members 
of  the  several  State  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of 
the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirma- 
tion, to  support  this  Constitution;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required 
as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  pubhc  trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII     • 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States,  shall  be  sufficient  for  the 
establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  Convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present,  the 
seventeenth  day  of  September  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  eighty-seven  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of 
America  the  twelfth.  In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our 
names. 
[Signed  by]  Go  Washington 

Presidt  and  Deputy  from  Virginia 


CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES       xlv 

Articles  in  Addition  to  and  Amendment  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  proposed  by  Congress,  and  ratified 
BY  the  Legislatures  of  the  Several  States,  Pursuant  to  the 
Fifth  Article  of  the  Original  Constitution^ 

Article  I.  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of 
religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of 
speech,  or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and 
to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

Article  II.  A  well-regulated  militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a 
free  State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms,  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Article  III.  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be 
prescribed  by  law. 

Article  IV.  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses, 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be 
violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by 
oath  or  afhrmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and 
the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

Article  V.  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise 
infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury  except 
in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  miUtia,  when  in  actual 
service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the 
same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled 
in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life, 
liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property 
be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation. 

Article  VI.  In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right 
to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been 
previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of 
the  accusation;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him;  to  have 
compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assist- 
ance of  counsel  for  his  defence. 

Article  VII.  In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall 
exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States, 
than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

Article  VIII.  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines 
imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

Article  IX.  The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain  rights,  shall 
not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

Article  X.    The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Con- 

1  The  first  ten  Amendments  were  adopted  in  1791. 


xlvi      CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

stitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respec- 
tively, or  to  the  people. 

Article  XI.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed 
to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one 
of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of 
any  foreign  state.    [Adopted  in  1798.] 

Article  XII.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be 
an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves;  they  shall  name  in  their 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person 
voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of 
the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and 
transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to 
the  President  of  the  Senate;  — ■  the  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates  and 
the  votes  shall  then  be  counted;  —  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then 
from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of 
those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  im- 
mediately, by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes 
shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote; 
a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds 
of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March 
next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  President.  —  The  person  having 
the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-President,  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if 
such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if 
no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the 
Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist 
of  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible 
to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States.     [Adopted  in  1804.] 

Article  XIII.  Section  i.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude, 
except  as  a  punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  con- 
victed, shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  juris- 
diction. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation.     [Adopted  in  1865.] 

Article  XIV.     Section  i.   All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES     xlvii 

States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law 
which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States; 
nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law;  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protec- 
tion of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  States 
according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons 
in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any 
election  for  the  choice  of  Electors  for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a 
State,  or  the  members  of  the  legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male 
inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion,  or 
other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  propor- 
tion which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of 
male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress,  or 
Elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military, 
under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an 
oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a 
member  of  any  State  legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any 
State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in 
insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies 
thereof.  But  Congress  may  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each  house,  remove  such 
disability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized 
by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for 
services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But 
neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obliga- 
tion incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any 
claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations, 
and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  by  appropriate  legisla- 
tion the  provisions  of  this  article.     [Adopted  in  1867.] 

Article  XV.  Section  i.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  any  State  on  account 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appro- 
priate legislation.     [Adopted  in  1870.] 

Article  XVI.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on 
incomes,  from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the  sev- 
eral States,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration.   [Adopted  in  1913.] 

Article  XVII.     Section  i.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  com- 


xlviii     CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

posed  of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six 
years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each  State  shall 
have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
State  Legislatures. 

Section  2.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in 
the  €enate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs  of  election 
to  fill  such  vacancies:  Provided  that  the  Legislature  of  any  State  may  empowet 
the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  people  fill  the 
vacancies  by  election  as  the  Legislature  may  direct. 

Section  3.  This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election 
or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  vahd  as  part  of  the  Constitution. 
[Adopted  in  19 13.] 


INDEX 


Abolitionists,  340,  377,  381,  387,  420 
Acadia  {o-ka.'  dl-a),  99,  106,  156-157 
Acts  of  Congress,  see  Congress 
Acts  of  Parliament,  see  Parliament 
Adams,  John,  193  (portrait),  195,  238,  242; 

as  President,  259-260,  263 
Adams,  John  Quincy,  295,  320;   as  Presi- 
dent, 326,  347 
Adams,  Samuel,  169  (portrait),  171,  189, 

238 
Admiralty  Courts,  145 
Aeroplanes,  471 
Africa,  3,  348,  370 
Agricultural  High  Schools,  515,  516 
Agriculture,  see  Farming 
Alabama,  312,  313,  391,  441,  477,  481 
Alabama,  cruiser,  407;  Claims,  446 
Alaska,  349,  448,  485-486;    area,  Appen- 
dix, vi 
Albany,  24,  78;  Congress,  154 
A^den,  John,  51 

Alexander  II,  of  Russia,  447-448 
Algonquin  (ai'-gSn-kwin)  Indians,  32-34 
Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  260,  263 
Alleghany  Mountains  (al'-e-ga-nl),  28 
Allen,  Ethan,  185 
Amendments,  see  Constitution 
America,  discovery  of,  4;   origin  of  name, 
7;  early  explorations  in,  8-14, 19,  22-24, 
33-35,  37-38 
American  Federation  of  Labor,  494 
Americus  Vespucius  (a-m6r'  i-cus  v5s-pu- 

shus),  7 
Ancient  Times,  defined,  2  (Note) 
Anderson,  Major  Robert,  395,  396 
Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  143  (portrait) 
Antietam,  battle  of,  418 
Apaches  (a-pa'  chd),  456 
Appalachian  Mountains,   27-28,   29,  37- 

38,  112,  401 
Appalachian  Valley,  28,  402,  415 


Appomattox  (Sp'  p6-mS,t' twks) ,  430 

Arbitration,  in  labor  disputes,  496;  inter- 
national, 529-31 

Architecture,  colonial,  121 

Argentine  Republic,  318 

Arizona,  435;  as  a  state,  484,  488,  505, 
506 

Arkansas,  9,  349;  as  a  state,  381,  392, 
397,  423,  505 

Arkwright,  Richard,  251 

Armada  (ar-ma'  dd),  18 

Arnold,  Benedict,  200,  216 

Arthur,  C.  A.,  app.,  vii 

Articles  of  Confederation,  194-195 

Ashburton  Treaty,  352 

Astoria,  274 

Atchison,  Kas.,  383 

Atlanta,  428-429,  478 

Augusta,  Ga.,  119,  335 

Austin,  Moses  and  Stephen,  345-346 

Austria,  149,  153,  277-278;  and  Hungary, 
452 

Automobile,  471 

Bacon,  Nathaniel,  144 
Balboa  (bal-bo'  i),  5-6 
Baltimore,  75,  157,  293-294,  335-336,  398, 

465,  473 
Baltimore,  Lord  (portrait),  71-75 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  335,  336,  363 
Bank  notes,  337,  338,  421 
Bank  of  the  United  States,  first,  245-246; 

second,  337-338 
Baptists,  136 

Barbados  (bar-ba'  d6z),  89,  98 
Battle-ship,  defined,  153 
Batts,  Captain  Thomas,  37 
Beauregard  (bo'  rhe-gard).  General,  409 
Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  464 
Bennington,  battle  of,  200 
Benton,  Senator,  324,  351 


INDEX 


Berkeley,  Sir  William,  87,  144 

Bessemer,  Henry,  466 

Bienville  (be-SN'  vel),  108 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  477 

Blaine,  James  G.,  508 

Blockades,  290-292,  405-406 

Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  28 

Bohemian  immigration,  492 

Bolivar  (bol'  i-var),  Simon,  318-319 

Bonaparte  (bo'  nc-piirt).  Napoleon,  260, 
266-268,  276-284;   portrait,  279 

Boone,  Daniel,  114,  208-209,  270 

Bosses,  political,  500-501 

Boston,  61,  121,  137,  168,  169,  170-171, 
172-173,  181,  186-187,  336,  514 

Bowling  Green,  Ky.,  403,  413,  414 

Braddock,  General,  155 

Braddock's  Road,  208 

Bradford,  William,  51 

Bragg,  General,  415 

Brandywine,  battle  of,  201 

Brazil,  531 

Breckinridge,  J.  C,  390,  391 

Brewster,  William,  50-51 

Bridgeport,  Conn.,  473 

Brockton,  Mass.,  473 

Brooklyn,  84,  197 

Brotherhoods,  Locomotive  Engineers,  Fire- 
men, Trainmen,  494 

Brown,  John,  383,  387-388 

Brush,  C.  F.,  465 

Bryan,  William  J.,  509 

Buccaneers  (buc'ca-neer) ,  88 

Buchanan  (bu-ka.n'  an),  James,  386,  387, 
392,  393,  395,  397 

Buell,  General,  414 

Buena  Vista  (bwa'  na  vis-ta),  battle  of, 
356 

Buffalo,  303,  365,  461,  466 

Bulgarian  immigration,  492 

Bull  Run,  battles  of,  first,  407-410;  second, 
418 

Bunker  Hill,  battle  of,  183-184 

Burgoyne  (bur-goin').  General,  199-200 

Burnside,  General,  418 

Burr,  Aaron,  263 

Cabinet,  President's,  242-243 
Cable,  Atlantic,  464 


Cabot  (kab'«t),  12-13 

Cahokia  Cka-ho'  ki-a),  108 

Calhoun  (kal-hoon),  John  C,  283,  325, 
331-332,  352,  378,  392;  portrait,  331 

California,  under  Spanish  rule,  226-227; 
annexation  of,  352,  354-358;  as  a  state, 
376,  578,  380,  454,  460,  486-487,  505, 
506 

Calvert,  Cecil,  71 

Calvert,  Leonard,  72 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  61,  64,  68 

Canada,  under  French  rule,  22,  99-109; 
English  conquest  of,  149-159;  under 
Enghsh  rule,  159,  207,  226,  286-289, 
348-349;  Dominion  of,  448-50;  North- 
west, 485 

Canning,  George,  j^2o 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  530 

Carnegie  Institution,  516 

Carolinas,  95,  107,  108,  136;  see  further, 
North  and  South  CaroUna 

Caroline,  French  Fort,  11,  410 

Carpet-Baggers,  441,  443 

Carson,  Nev.,  455 

Cartier  (kar'  ty  a),  Jacques,  12 

Cartwright,  Edmund,  251,  252 

Carver,  John,  52,  54 

Cass,  Lewis,  377 

CathoUcs,  see  Roman  Catholics 

Caucus,  "King,"  324,  325 

Centennial  Exposition,  443-444,  472 

Central  Pacific  Railroad,  454-455 

Cervera  (th?r-va'  rii),  524 

Champlain  (sham-plan),  Samuel  de,  ig 
(portrait),  20,  22-23,  3i-33 

Chancellorsville,  battle  of,  421 

Channing,  W.  E.,  340 

Charles  I,  59-60,  69-70,  71 

Charles  II,  70,  83,  87,  90,  104 

Charleston,  S.C,  96,  169,  173,  197, 
218,  219,  335,  395-397,  402,  403,  404, 
433 

Charlestown,  Mass.,  61,  187 

Charlotte,  N.C.,  477-478,  479 

Charters,  colonial,  142-143,  148 

Chase,  S.  P.,  379 

Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  402,  404,  414,  425, 
477 

Chesapeake,  The,  281 


INDEX 


H 


Chicago,  34,  287,  303,  363,  364,  365, 
366,  458,  461,  468,  472,  491,  519- 
520 

Chicago  University,  516 

Chickamauga  (chik'  a-mo'  ga),  battle  of, 

425 

China,  361,  532;  immigrants  from,  454, 
492,  525 

Cibola  (stbold),  10 

Cincinnati,  233,  303-304.  365,  458 

Cities,  growth  of,  98,  121,  491;  govern- 
ment of,  503-504;  planning,  507 

Civil  Service  Reform,  501-502 

Civil  War,  395-431 

Claiborne,  WiUiam,  73,  82 

Clark,  George  Rogers,  2 10-2 11 

Clark,  William,  271-274 

Clay,  Henry,  282-283,  286,  316,  326,  328, 
352,  378-379  (portrait) 

Clermont,  The,  302 

Cleveland,  303,  307,  365,  366,  468 

Cleveland,  Grover,  496,  508  (portrait), 
S09,  52s 

Clinton,  De  Witt,  306 

Clinton,  George,  app.,  iii 

CUnton,  General  Henry,  215-216,  217 

CHpper  ships,  366-367 

Coal,  252-253,  298,  477,  48s 

Colbert,  107 

Colfax,  Schuyler,  app.,  vi 

Colleges,  67-68,  133-134,  342-343,  516- 
S18 

Colombia,  United  States  of,  318 

Colonial  architecture,  121 

Colonial  system,  old,  129,  164;  new,  330, 
348,  532 

Colonies,  British,  see  under  names,  Can- 
ada, etc. 

Colorado,  435;  as  a  state,  460,  488,  505, 
506 

Columbia,  S.C.,  478 

Columbia  River,  272 

Columbian  Exposition,  472 

Columbus,  2-5 

Columbus,  Ky.,  413,  414 

Commerce,  82,  127-132,  161,  165,  206, 
235-236,  257-258,  267-268,  278-284; 
see  app.,  xv 

Coimnercial  High  Schools,  515 


Commission  plan  of  city  government,  503- 
504 

Compromise  of  1850,  378-380 
'  Conciliation,  Boards  of,  496 

Concord,  battle  of,  178-180 

Conestoga  (con'-es  to'-gd)  wagons,  306 

Confederate  States,  391-431 

Congregationalists,  62,  136 

Congress,  Albany,  154;  Stamp  Act,  167; 
Continental,  174-175,  182,  189,  191, 
194,  195,  216,  230-237;  first  National, 
242 

Congress,  Acts  of,  early  242-246;  Alien 
and  Sedition,  260;  Embargo,  279;  Non- 
Intercourse,  280;  Tariff  of  1816,  301; 
National  Road,  305;  Missouri  Com- 
promise, 316;  Tariff  of  1833,  332;  Com- 
promise of  1850,  378-379;  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  Bill,  381-382;  Homestead 
Act,  434-435;  Reconstruction,  437-441; 
Civil  Service  Act,  502;  Interstate  Com- 
merce Act,  509 

Connecticut,  colonial,  64-68,  128,  134, 
140,  143,  148;  in  the  Revolution,  167, 
192-193;  as  a  state,  231 

Conservation,  489-490,  533 

Constitution,  formed,  239-241;  amended, 
263,  438,  441,  507,  app.,  ix 

Constitution,  The,  290-291 

Continental  Congress,  see  Congress,  Con- 
tinental 

Conventions,  324-325,  504 

Cooper,  Peter,  335 

Cooperation,  497-498 

Corinth,  Miss.,  403,  414 

Cornell,  Ezra,  366,  517 

Cornell  University,  517 

Cornwallis,  198,  218-220 

Coronado  (ko-ro-na'  do)  ,  10 

Correspondence,  committees  of,  171,  172 

Cortes  (kor'-tez),  8 

Cotton,  122,  254-255,  297,  298,  372-373, 
406,  435-436,  475 

Cotton-gin,  254,  255 

Cotton-seed  oil,  478 

Crockett,  David,  347 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  69 

Cuba,  4,  159,  319,  381,  522-524,  526 

Cumberland  Gap,  208 


lii 


INDEX 


Cumberland  National  Road,  304-30S 
Cumberland  River,  403,    414 
Curasao  (koo'  ra-so'),  88-89 
Curtis,  George  William,  502 
Custer,  General,  456 


Dallas,  G.  M.,  app.,  v 

Dartmouth  College,  134 

Davenport,  John,  65 

Davis,  Jefferson,  313-315,  379,  3Qi  (por- 
trait), 392,  393 

Dearborn,  Fort,  287 

Debt,  public,  244,  421,  431 

Debtors,  imprisonment  of,  117,  340 

Declaration  of  Independence,  190-191 

Deerfield,  Mass.,  105-106 

Delaware,  81,  91,  97,  239,  241,  438 

Democratic  party,  247,  328,  385,  386, 
387,  390,  391,  420,  429,  442,  443,  508- 
Sio 

Denver,  455 

De  Soto  (di  so'  to),  Ferdinand,  8-1 1 

Detroit,  102,  103,  160,  209,  211,  229,  237, 
287,  289,  363,  365,  366 

Dewey,  Commodore  George,  523 

Diaz  (dee'  ath),  3 

Dickinson,  John,  195  (portrait) 

Dinwiddle,  Governor,  152 

Dissenters,  89,  95 

District  of  Columbia,  244,  264,  380,  420 

Dollar,  Spanish,  132,  231 

Donelson,  Fort,  413,  414 

Douglas,  Frederick,  438 

Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  379,  384,  385-386, 
390,  397 

Drake,  Francis,  13 

Dred  Scott  affair,  385,  386 

Dress,  colonial,  137 

Duquesne  (dvi-kan'),  Fort,  152,  155,  157, 
158 

Duquesne,  Governor,  150,  151,  152 

Dutch,  see  New  Netherland 

Dynamo,  464-465 

East    India    Companies,    18-19,    77-78, 

172-173 
East  Liverpool,  0.,  473 
Ecuador,  318 


Eaton,  Theophilus,  65. 

Education,  colonial,  67-69,  133-134; 
national,  340-343;  in  South,  481;  new, 
513-520. 

Edison,  T.  A.,  465. 

Electoral  College,  240,  259,  263. 

Electricity,  464-466. 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  13-14,  21 

Emancipation,  418-420,  438 

Embargo,  279-280,  297 

Emigration,  "great,"  60,  69;  to  Virginia, 
87;  to  West  Indies,  87-89;  to  Penn- 
sylvania, 91-92;  second  great,  97-98; 
German,  Swiss,  111-112;  Scotch-Irish, 
1 1 4- 1 1 5 ;  see  Inmiigration 

Employers'  Association,  496-497 

Endicott,  John,  60 

England,  early  explorations  and  settle- 
ments, 12-14,  21-22,  26;  see  under  Vir- 
ginia, Massachusetts,  etc.;  Civil  War 
in,  69-70;  struggle  with  the  Dutch, 
77-85;  struggle  with  France,  99,  103- 
108,  149-159;  Revolution  of  1688,  104- 
105;  colonial  policy,  127-131,  139-146; 
quarrel  with  American  colonies,  164- 
176;  Revolutionary  War,  178-221; 
Industrial  Revolution,  250-253;  Trade 
disputes  with  U.  S.,  258-259,  276-284; 
war  with  France,  266,  268,  2  7  6-2  84; 
Oregon  question,  274,  350,  352,  356; 
War  of  181 2,  286-295;  American  tariff, 
300-301;  Monroe  Doctrine,  320-321; 
suffrage  in,  323,  329;  new  colonial  pol- 
icy, 348-349;  during  American  Civil 
War,  406-407,  419;  Alabama  Claims, 
446;  recent  reform  in,  450-451;  growth 
of  colonies,  522;  emigration  to  United 
States  from,  532 

Episcopal  church,  49,  89,  136 

Ericsson  (er'  ik-sun),  John,  416 

Erie,  Lake,  battle  of,  288-289 

Erie,  Pa.,  150,  288 

Erie  Canal,  306-307,  312,  335,  336, 
349 

Espanola  (Ss-pta  yo'  la),  88 

Essex,  The,  290,  291-292 

Evangeline,  the  poem,  157 

Exports,  from  the  colonies,  127-132,  :6i; 
during  Revolution,  206-207;    from  the 


INDEX 


liii 


United  States,  235,  261,  278,  279,  458, 
461,  app.,  XV 
Exposition,  Centennial,  443-44;  later,  472, 


Factory  system,  252,  297,  463 

Fairbanks,  C.  W.,  app.,  viii 

Fall  River,  Mass.,  473 

Fallam,  Robert,  37 

Falmouth,  Me.,  203 

Faneuil  (fan'  el)  Hall,  picture  of,  141 

Farming,  in  the  colonies,  123-125;  in  the 
South,  254,  372-374,  439,  475-477; 
recent  progress,  461,  488-489,  498 

Farragut  (far'4  -gut),  D.  G.,  415,  428 

Federal  Convention,  238-240;  see  Con- 
stitution 

FederaUst  party,  247,  268,  292-293,  327 

Ferdinand  VII,  of  Spain,  318,  319 

Fisheries,  132,  295 

Florida,  8,  116-117,  159,  221,  226;  pur- 
chase of,  318  (area,  app.,  iii);  as  a  state, 
381,  391,  441,  476,  479,  480 

Forestry,  489-490 

Fox,  George,  90 

France,  early  explorations  and  settlements, 
12,  ig-20,  26,  29,  31-38;  in  West  Indies, 
88;  in  Acadia,  Canada,  and  Mississippi 
Valley,  99-103,  108;  struggles  with 
the  English,  103-108,  149-159;  aid  in 
Revolutionary  War,  213-221;  French 
Revolution,  255-256;  American  dis- 
putes with,  256-261;  sale  of  Louisiana, 
266-268;  Napoleonic  wars,  276-284; 
Monroe  Doctrine,  319-320;  Revolu- 
tion of  1830,  329;  Civil  War  in  U.  S., 
406;  Mexican  affair,  446-447;  Third 
Republic,  45 1-45  2 ;  new  colonial  empire, 

522 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  writings,  134-135; 
plan  of  union,  154;  in  France,  195,  213- 
214;  portrait,  214;  at  the  Federal  Con- 
vention, 238 

Frederick  the  Great,  116,  149,  153 

Fredericksburg,  battle  of,  418 

Freedmen,  437-438 

Free  Soil  party,  377 

French  and  Indian  War,  148-159 

French  Revolution,  250,  255-256 


Friends,  Society  of,  94 
Frontenac  (froN' te-nak') ,  Fort,  157 
Fruit  farms,  486 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  376-377 
Fulton,  Robert,  302 

Fur  trade,  57,  79,  81,  102-103,  119,  273, 
320,  349 

Gadsden  Purchase,  358;  map,  357;  area, 
app.,  V 

Gage,  General,  178,  181,  186 

Gallatin  (gal'  d-tin),  Albert,  266 

Galveston,  Tex.,  479,  503 

Gama  (ga'  ma),  Vasco  da,  3 

Garfield,  James  A.,  502 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  340,  377,  437 

Gas-engines,  470-471 

Gates,  General,  200,  213,  218 

Genet  (zh^h-na'),  257 

George  II,  117 

George  III,  165  (portrait) 

Georgia,  117-119,  241,  254,  373,  391,  441 

Germans,  settlements  of,  93-94,  111-113, 
115,  119;  later  immigration  of,  310, 
310-3TS-,  532;  value  of  work,  371;  in 
the  Union  army,  404 

Germantown,  Pa.,  93-94 

Germany,  112,  310,  370,  451,  522 

Gerry,  Elbridge,  app.,  iii 

Gettysburg,  battle  of,  421-423 

Girls,  education  of,  133,  343 

Gladstone,  W.  E.,  446 

Gloversville,  N.Y.,  473 

Gold,  discoveries  of,  358-360,  435,  485 

Government,  colonial,  139,  140,  142; 
reorganization  during  the  Revolution, 
192-195;  federal,  238-247;  changes 
in  Jackson's  time,  323-328;  recent 
changes,  500-510 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  478 

Grangers,  497-498 

Grant,  U.  S.,  413-415,  423,  425-430,  442; 
portrait,  426 

Gray,  Captain,  274 

Great  Britain,  see  England 

Great  Lakes,  33,  303,  365 

Greek,  study  of,  134 

Greek  immigrants,  492 

Greeley,  Horace,  368,  394  (portrait),  508 


Hv 


INDEX 


Greenbacks,  421 
Green  Mountain  Boys,  185,  200 
Greene,  Nathaniel,  218-219 
Grenville,  George,  164-165 
Guam  (gwam),  524;   area,  app.,  viii 
Guerriere  (gar-ry  Sr),  The,  291 
Guilford  Court  House,  battle  of,  219 
Guthrie,  Okl.,  484. 

Hague  Tribunal,  529-530 

Haiti  (ha'  ti),  88 

Half  Moon,  The,  23,  24,  3s 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  238,  242,  244,  245 

(portrait),  246-247,  263 
Hamlin,  Hannibal,  app.,  vi 
Hancock,  General,  422-423 
Hanover,  N.H.,  134 
Hargreaves,  James,  250-251 
Harper's  Ferry,  387-388 
Harrison,  Benjamin,  509  (portrait) 
Harrison,  W.  H.,  282,  352 
Harrodsburg,  Ky.,  209 
Hartford,  Ct.,  65,  81 
Harvard  College,  68-69,  '^33,  170 
Havana,  159,  523 
Hawaii  (ha-wi'g),  361,  524.  525 
Hay,  John,  532 

Hayes,  R.  B.,  442  (portrait),  443,  502 
Hayne,  Senator,  337 
Hendricks,  T.  A.,  app.,  vii 
Henry,  Fort,  413,  414 
Henry,  Patrick,  162,  167  (portrait),  189, 

210,  238 
Hessian  soldiers,  197 
High  Point,  N.C.,  478 
High  Schools,  68,  342,  513-516 
Hobart,  G.  A.,  app.,  viii 
Holland,  49,  216,  221,  278 
Homestead  Law,  384,  434-435 
Hooker,  General,  425 
Hooker,  Thomas,  64 
Hopkins  Grammar  School,  69 
House  of  Representatives,  see  Congress 
Houston,  Sam,  347 
Howe,  Elias,  369 
Howe,   General,   184,   186,  196,  197,   199, 

200-201,  205,  215 
Hudson,  Henry,  23-24,  32-33,  77 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  103-104,  349,  350 


Huguenot  (hu'  g6-n6t),  96 
Hull,  Captain  Isaac,  290-291 
Hull,  General,  287 
Hungary,  452 

Iberville  (e  ber  vel'),  106-108 

Idaho,  274,  356,  434,  460,  487,  488,  506 

Illinois,  under  French  rule,  108,  148; 
Clark's  expedition  to,  211;  as  a  terri- 
tory, 248,  311,  312;  as  a  state,  313,  337, 
342 

Immigration,  see  Emigration;  after  1S15, 
310,  311;  after  1845,  369-371;  after 
Civil  War,  433,  457,  48^491-493;  as 
a  whole,  532^ 

Impeachment,  440 

Impressment  of  seamen,  280-283,  295 

Indentured  servants,  43,  in,  115 

Independence,  Declaration  of,  189-191 

Independents,  see  Separatists 

India,  2,  3,  5,  153,  164 

Indiana,  Clark's  expedition  to,  211;  as 
a  territory,  248,  311,  312;  as  a  state, 
313,  323,  342,  470 

Indian  Territory,  457,  483,  484 

Indians,  Champlain  and,  29-32;  attack 
Virginians,  47;  in  New  England,  54- 
56,  63-64,  66-67;  in  Maryland,  72;  in 
New  Netherland,  79-80;  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, 94;  missionaries  to,  101-102;  as 
allies,  104-106;  in. French  and  Indian 
War,  154-155;  in  Pontiac's  War,  160; 
in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  209-210; 
Spanish  missions  among,  226-228; 
Wayne's  victory  over,  247-248;  in 
Louisiana  Territory,  271-273;  fight  at 
Tippecanoe,  282;  Creek,  318;  recent 
wars  with,  456;   become  citizens,  483 

Industries,  colonial,  125-129;  during 
Revolution,  205-206;  development  of, 
250-255,  297-300,  367-369,  434;  recent, 
463-474,  475-480,  485-490,  491-498 

Initiative,  505 

Internal  Improvements,  301-302,  305,  306 

Interstate  Commerce  Act,  509 

Inventions,  250-255,  365-369,  464 

Iowa,  343,  349,  370,  381,  457 

Ireland,  310,  370 

Iron,  128,  252-253,  298,  467-469,  477 


INDEX 


Iv 


Iroquois  (Ir-o-kwoiO,  30,  31.  32,  104,  154 
Italy,  452,  492,  532 

Jackson,  Andrew,  victory  at  New  Orleans, 
294;  and  Creeks,  318;  Presidency,  325- 
328,  331-332,  337-339,  347;  portrait, 
325 

Jackson,  "Stonewall,"  409,  417,  421 

Jamaica,  89 

James  I,  20,  21,  22,  48,  59 

James  II,  83,  84,  103-104,  113,  143 

Jamestown,  Va.,  21-22,  40-44;  fair  at, 
481 

Japan,  361;   laborers  of,  492,  525 

Jay,  John,  243,  258-259  (portrait) 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  in  the  Revolution, 
191,  19s;  in  France,  238;  in  the 
Cabinet,  242,  244;  founder  of  Demo- 
cratic party,  246-247;  Vice-President, 
259-260;  Presidency,  263-274,  276- 
282;  founds  University  of  Virginia,  343 

Jenckes,  Thomas,  502 

Jesuit  missions,  101-102 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  516 

Johnson,  Andrew,  437  (portrait),  439-441 

Johnson,  R.  M.,  app.,  iv 

Johnston,  A.  S.,  414 

Johnston,  J.  E.,  409,  410,  417 

Joliet  (zho'  le-a'),  Louis,  34 

Jones,  John  Paul,  217  (portrait) 

Jumonville  (zhii'  m6n'  vel'),  152 

Jury,  trial  by,  47 

Kansas,  10,  272;  struggle  in,  381-384; 
as  a  state,  470,  484,  506 

Kansas  City,  350,  458,  461 

Kansas  and  Nebraska  Bill,  381-382 

Kaskas'  klA,  108,  211 

Kearny  (kar'  ni).  General,  356 

Kentucky,  settlement  of,  209,  211,  234; 
Mississippi  question  in,  236;  admitted 
to  Union,  248;  Resolutions  of,  260;  as 
a  state,  312,  314,  315,  323;  in  Civil  War, 
408,  413,  414,  415;   slavery  in,  438 

Key  West,  480 

King,  W.  R.,  app.,  v 

King  William's  War,  105 

King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  218 

Knights  of  Labor,  494 


Knox,  Henry,  243 
Knoxville,  Tenn.,  402,  477 
Kosciuszko,  215 
Ku  Klux  Klan  (ku  kluks),  442 

Labor  Unions,  493-495 

Lafayette  (la'  fi'  y6t'),  214,  219,  256,  329 

Lake  Champlain,  battle  of,  289-290 

Lake  Erie,  battle  of,  288-289 

Lands,  Public,  232,  312,  434-435,  458 

La  Salle  (la  sal'),  34-35.  io7 

Latin,  study  of,  134 

Lawrence,  Kas.,  383 

Laws,  see  Acts 

Lee,  R.  E.,  397-398,  410,  417-418,  421- 
423,  427-430 

Legislatures,  colonial,  46,  57,  66,  74,  84, 
139-142,  166;  state,  193-194 

Leland  Stanford  University,  516 

Lewis,  Meriwether,  271-274 

Lexington,  battle  of,  178-180 

Leyden  (h'dcn),  49-50 

Liberal  Republican  Party,  508 

Libraries,  colonial,  47,  68;  traveling,  518 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  youth  of,  313-314; 
candidate  for  Senate,  385-386;  Presi- 
dency, 390,  393,  395-397,  398,  40s,  418- 
420,  426,  429-431,  436,  437,  439- 

Linotype,  470 

Lithuanian  immigrants,  492 

Locomotives,  early,  334-336 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  157 

Long  Island,  80,  127 

Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  452 

Los  Angeles,  227,  505 

Louis  XIV,  103,  104 

Louis  XVI,  213,  214,  255,  256 

Louisburg,  157 

Louisiana,  named,  35;  under  French  rule, 
108;  Spanish,  159,  236,  259;  Purchase 
of,  266-274;  admitted  to  Union,  313; 
slavery  in,  316;  in  Civil  War,  391,  415, 
423;  industry  in,  476-477 

Louisville,  Ky.,  234,  303 

Lowell,  Francis,  29 

Lowell,  J.  R.,  380 

Loyalists,  191-192,  207,  218,  286 

Lumber  trade,  early,  129,  131 

Lundy's  Lane,  battle  of,  288 


Ivi 


INDEX 


Lynn,  Mass.,  6i,  128 
Lyon,  Captain,  398 
Lyon,  Mary,  343  (portrait) 

Macdonough,  Commander,  289-290 

Machine  tools,  469 

Mackinac,  102,  237,  287 

Madison,  James,  during  Revolution,  195; 
in  Philadelphia  Convention,  238-239 
(portrait);  Presidency,  276,  282-284 

Magellan,  Ferdinand,  2,  6-7 

Magyar  (Hungarian)  immigrants,  492 

Maine,  settlement  of,  99;  admitted  to 
Union,  316;  boundary  dispute,  333; 
adopts  Initiative,  505 

Maine,  The,  523 

Manassas  Junction,  403,  409 

Manhattan  Island,  78;  see  New  York  City 

Manila,  159,  523,  524 

Manitoba,  485 

Mann,  Horace,  340-341  (pKjrtrait) 

Manual  Training  High  Schools,  515 

Marconi,  465 

Maria  Theresa,  149,  153 

Marietta,  233 

Marion,  Francis,  218 

Markham,  William,  92 

Marquette  (mar  kSt'),  33-34,  102 

Marshall,  T.  R.,  app.,  ix 

Martinique  (mar'  tin-neekO,  88 

Maryland,  founding  of,  71-75;  trade  of, 
129;  religion  in,  136;  government  of, 
140,  144;  in  French  and  Indian  War, 
^56;  "attitude  toward  state  land  claims, 
231;  gives  District  of  Columbia,  264; 
slavery  in,  373,  438;  in  Civil  War,  398 

Mason  and  Slidell,  406 

Massachusetts,  settlement  of,  24,  49-57, 
59-62;  Indian  raids,  105-106;  colonial 
industries,  126,  128;  education,  133; 
government,  140,  141,  142,  143;  land 
claims,  148,  231;  resists  parliament, 
167,  170-174;  in  the  Revolution,  178- 
187,  193;  Shays'  Rebellion,  234-235; 
ratifies  Constitution,  242;  in  181 2  War, 
293;  slavery  in,  316;  boundary  dispute, 
333;  early  railroads  of,  336;  reforms 
in,  340-341;  shoe  trade,  372;  soldiers  in 
Civil  War,  397;    education  in,  514,  517 


Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  517; 

Institute  of  Technology,  517 
Massachusetts  Bay  Company,  60 
Massasoit,  55 
Maximilian,  Emperor,  447 
Mayflower,  The,  51 

McClellan,  G.  B.,  408,  410,  415-418,  429 
McCormick,  Cyrus,  367-368 
McDowell,  General,  409,  417 
McKinley,  William,  509  (portrait),  522, 

523 
Meade,  General,  422-423,  426 
Meat  trade,  304,  458 
Memphis,  Tenn.,  402,  403,  414 
Menendez  (mi-n6n  deth),  11 
Mennonites,  111-112 
Merrimac,  The,  415-417 
Mexico,  conquest  of,  8;  missions  of,  226- 

227;    independence  of,  319;    war  with, 

345-348,  354-358;   Maximilian  in,  446- 

447 
Michigan,  territory,   248,   287,   289,  342; 

as  a  state,  381,  467 
Michigan  Central  Railroad,  363 
Middle  Ages,  defined,  2 
Miles,  General,  524 
Milwaukee,  303,  366 
Mining,  487;   see  also  Gold 
MinneapoHs,  461 
Minnesota,   363,   457,   467;   admitted   to 

Union,  app.,  vi 
Mint,  U.  S.,  245 
Minute-men,  178 
Missionary  Ridge,  battle  of,  425 
Missions,   Spanish,   11-12,  226-227,   345, 

354;   French,  S3,  lOi 
Mississippi,  as  a  state,  312,  313;   secedes, 

391;   Reconstruction  in,  441 
Mississippi  River,  9,  34-35,  236,  259,  266- 

268,  403,  414-415,  423 
Missouri,  explorations  in,  270,  271,  312; 

admitted    to    Union,    316-318;     early 

trade  of,  349;   in  Kansas  struggle,  383; 

in  Civil  War,  398,  407-408;  slavery  in, 

438;  adopts  Initiative,  505 
Missouri  Compromise,  316-318,  382,  385 
Mobile,  Ala.,  108,  428 
Mohawk  River,  28,  81 
Molasses  Act,  see  Sugar  Act 


INDEX 


Ivii 


Money,  132,  231,  441 

Monitor,  The,  415-417 
Monmouth,  battle  of,  216 
Monroe,  James,  320 
Monroe  Doctrine,  320,  447 
Montana,  271,  435,  460,  487,  488,  505 
Montcahn,  158-159 
Monterey,  battle  of,  356 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  391 
Montreal,  22,  103,  159 
Moravians,  116 
Mormons,  360,  460,  488 
Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  365-366 
Morton,  L.  P.,  app.,  vii 
Mount  Holyoke  Seminary,  343 
Mount  Vernon,  222 
Moyne,  Pierre  le,  106-108 
Murfreesboro,  battle  of,  415 

Napoleon  I,  260,  266-268,  276-284,  318 

Napoleon  III,  446-447,  451 

Nashville,  376,  403,  414,  429 

National  Association  of  Manufacturers, 
497 

National  Farmers'  Alliance,  498 

National  (Cumberland)  Road,  304-305 

Natural  gas,  470,  477 

Naturalization,  116,  258,  281 

Naval  stores,  129 

Navigation  Acts,  82,  131,  145,  165 

Nebraska,  381-384,  457,  460,  app.,  vi 

Needham,  James,  38 

Nelson,  Lord,  266,  277  (portrait) 

Netherland,  New,  23-24,  77-85 

Nevada,  435,  460,  505 

New  Amsterdam,  24,  77,  80,  83-84 

Newcastle,  Pa.,  114 

New  England,  beginnings  of,  49-69;  early 
trade  of,  129,  130;  local  government  in, 
140,  143;  attitude  toward  War  of  181 2, 
280,  292-293;  recent  industries  of, 
463 

New  Hampshire,  68,  134 

New  Haven,  65,  66,  67,  69 

New  Jersey,  beginnings  of,  84,  97;  edu- 
cation in,  134;  religion,  136;  under 
Andros,  143;  in  the  Revolution,  203; 
in  Philadelphia  Convention,  240,  241; 
slavery  in,  254;   industries  of,  463 


New  Mexico,  226,  376,  378,  380,  382,  484, 
489,  505 

New  Orleans,  108,  159,  259,  268,  294,  298, 
303,  304,  365,  415.  479,  S04 

Newport,  R.I.,  64,  203,  216 

New  York,  colonial,  24,  77,  78-85,  97-98, 
128,  140,  142,  143,  148;  in  the  Revolu- 
tion, 167,  189,  191,  199-200,  203;  land 
claims,  231;  and  the  new  Constitu- 
tion, 239,  242;  Erie  Canal,  306-307; 
railroads  of,  336-337;  industry  in,  463; 
adopts  Civil  Service  Reform,  502-503; 
education  in,  517 

New  York  City,  80,  98,  121,  134,  167,  168, 
169,  173,  187,  196-197,  215,  220,  229, 
307,  491,  501,  503 

Newspapers,  134,  229,  368-369 

Nonconformists,  59-60 

North  Carolina,  colonial,  97,  112,  114, 
115,  129,  140,  144,  148,;  in  Revo- 
lution, 218-219;  and  the  Constitu- 
tion, 242  (app.,  ii);  University  of, 
342;  slavery  in,  373,  392;  in  the  Civil 
War,  410,  430;  later  events  in,  478,  479 

North  Dakota,  271,  457,  460 

Northwest  Territory,  231-233,  248 

Nova  Scotia,  156,  207,  348 

Oberlin  College,  343 

Ogden,  Utah,  455 

Oglethorpe,  James,  11 7-1 19 

Ohio,  under  French  rule,  149-158;  as 
an  Indian  territory,  160;  settlement  of, 
208,  232-234,  247-248;  admitted  to 
Union,  248;  as  a  state,  307,  323,  342, 
470,  505 

Ohio  Company,  first,  150,  151;  of  1787, 
232-233 

Oil,  discovery  of,  434,  477 

Oklahoma,  272,  470,  483-484,  505 

Omaha,  455,  458,  461,  473 

Ordinance  of  1787,  232 

Oregon,  explorations  in,  273-274;  ques- 
tion of,  295;  claimed  by  Russia,  320; 
Hudson  Bay  Company  in,  349,  350; 
American  settlers  in,  351,  352;  annexed, 
356;  admitted  to  Union,  376;  recent 
events  in,  486-487,  505,  506 

Otis,  James,  162,  167 


Iviii 


INDEX 


Pacific  Ocean,  5-6 

Paine,  Thomas,  190 

Panama  Canal,  527-529 

Pan-American  Conference,  531 

Panic  of  1837,  338;  of  1873,  456 

Paper  money,  205,  337,  338,  421 

Parkman,  Francis,  351 

Parliament,  English,  46,  59-60,  104,  127, 
141,  165;  Acts  of.  Sugar  Act,  131-132; 
Sugar  Act  of  1764,  166;  Stamp  Act, 
166-167;  Townshend  Acts,  169;  Intoler- 
able Acts,  174;  Quebec  Act,  174;  Re- 
form Acts,  329,  450 

Parson's  Cause,  162 

Parties,  see  under  party  names 

Pastorius,  94 

Patroons,  78-79 

Penn,  William,  90-95  (with  portrait) 

Pennsylvania,  settlement  of,  90-gs,  97; 
Germans  in,  113;  Scotch-Irish  in,  114- 
115;  education  in,  134;  colonial  govern- 
ment, 140;  struggle  with  French,  148, 
156;  Indian  war,  160;  resists  Stamp 
Act,  167;  during  Revolution,  197,  200- 
201,  203-204,  215-216;  slavery  in,  254; 
early  railroads,  335,  336,  337,  363; 
recent  industries  of,  463,  470 

Perry,  O.  H.,  288 

Peru,  8,  319 

Petroleum  discovered,  434 

Philadelphia,  96-97,  113,  121,  134,  168, 
173,  200-201,  203,  238,  335,  363,  443, 

473,  491,  503 
Philadelphia  Convention,  238-240 
Philippine  Islands,  159,  319,  524,  525-526, 

532 
Phonograph,  470 
Pickens,  Andrew,  218 
Pickett,  General,  422-423 
Pierce,  Franklin,  app.,  v 
Pike,  Zebulon,  272-273 
Pilgrims,  49-58 
Pitt,  William,  157-162,  168 
Pittsburg  Landing,  battle  of,  414 
Pittsburgh,  149,  151,  158,  298,  303,  363, 

468,  495 
Pizarro  (pe-z&r'  ro),  8 
Plantations,  early,  43,  124,  125;  spread  of, 

254,  314,  373;  failure  of  system,  439,  475 


Playground  movement,  519-520 

Plymouth,  49-58,  67 

Pocahontas,  41 

Polish  immigrants,  492 

Polk,  James  K.,  352,  354-358 

Polo,  Marco,  2 

Pontiac's  War,  160 

Pony  Express,  435 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  135 

Population,  of  early  Virginia,  47,  87;  of 
Plymouth,  57;  by  1700,  97-98;  by  1750, 
iii;  by  1783,  225;  see  appendix  for 
census  reports  of  1790,  etc.;  at  opening 
of  Civil  War,  400-401;  later  increase, 
433;  make  up  of  present,  532 

Port  Royal,  Acadia,  19,  99,  106 

Port  Royal,  S.C,  410 

Porter,  Captain  D.  D.,  291-292 

Portland,  Ore.,  472 

Porto  Rico,  319,  524;   area,  app.,  viii 

Post  Office,  229,  242,  366 

Presbyterians,  89,  136 

Prescott,  Colonel  WilUam,  183-184 

Presidency,  239,  240,  241,  263,  324-325 

Princeton,  battle  of,  198 

Princeton  College,  134 

Printing,  in  the  colonies,  134-135;  rotary 
press,  368 

Privateers,  206,  217 

Protection,  see  Tariff 

Providence,  R.I.,  64,  134,  297 

Prussia,  149,  153,  451 

Pulaski,  215 

Pullman,  111.,  495-496 

Puritans,  59-60,  62,  74,  87,  90,  137 

Putnam,  Israel,  174,  181 

Quakers,  89,  90,  91,  111-112,  137,   191, 

394 
Quartering  Act,  169 
Quebec,  22,  158-159,  186,  199;   see  under 

Canada 
Quebec  Act,  174 
Queen  Anne's  War,  105-106 

Railroads,   334-337,   363-364,    400,  40i- 

402,  403,  409,  454-456,  485 
Raleigh  (raw'  It),  Sir  Walter,  13-14,  20 
Ranches,  457-458 


INDEX 


lix 


Randolph,  John,  283 
Recall,  505-506 
Reconstruction,  439-443 
Redemptioners,  112,  115-116      '' 
Reed,  Major  Walter,  526 
Referendum,  505 
Religious  liberty,  265,  324 
Representative  system,  166,  329 
Republican  party,  384,  386,  387,  390,  391, 

429,  442,  443,  508-510 
Reservations,  Indian,  456,  483 
Revere,  Paul,  178,  179 

Rhode  Island,  settlement  of,  63-64,  66; 

early  education  in,  134;    religion,  136; 
•     colonial  government  of,   140,    143;    in 

Revolution,  192-193;    paper  money  of, 

235;  and  the  Constitution,  242,  app.,  ii; 

factories  in,  297 
Rice,  cultivation  of,  125,  476-477 
Richmond,  Va.,   44,  397,  402,   404,  427, 

430,  433.  465,  481 
Roads,  228,  304-305 
Robertson,  James,  209 
Robinson,  John,  50 

Rochambeau   (ro  shdN'  boO,   Count  de, 

219-220 
Rockefeller  Institution,  516 
Rolfe,  John,  45 
Roman  Catholics,  71,  74,   101-102,   136, 

226-227 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  510,  524,  530 
Roosevelt  dam,  488-489 
Rough  Riders,  524 
Russia,  153,  277-278,  282,  284,  319-321, 

447-448,  529 

Sacramento,  Cal.,  358,  455 

St.  Augustine,  10 

St.  Lawrence  River,  12 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  270,  272,  303,  349,  363, 

398,  413,  458,  472 
St.  Mary's,  Md.,  72 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  461,  504 
Salem,  Mass.,  61,  136-137 
Salt  Lake,  Utah,  455 
Samoan  Islands,  app.,  viii 
San  Diego,  Cal.,  226 
San  Francisco,  226,  355,  360 
San  Martin,  General,  318-319 
Santa  F6,  350 


Santiago  (san-te-a  go),  524 

Santo  Domingo,  88,  266-267 

Saratoga,  battle  of,  200 

Savannah,  Ga.,  118,  218,  219,  429 

"  Scalawags,"  441 

Schenectady,  81,  105 

Schools,  in  Virginia,  47 ;  in  New  England, 

67-69;    colonial,   133-134;    later,  340- 

343,  481,  513-520,  526 
Schurz,  Carl,  370,  502 
Schuyler  (skl'ler).  General,  200 
Scotch  immigration,  113-114,  119,  136 
Scott,  Dred,  385 
Scott,  General  W.,288,  357 
Seattle,  Wash.,  486 
Secession,  332,  391 
Senate,  239,  240,  241,  506-507 
Separatists,  49,  62 
Servants,   indentured,   43,    11 5-1 16;    see 

Slavery 
Servian  immigrants,  492 
Seven  Years'  War,  153,  159 
Seward,  W.  H.,  379,  390,  394.  448 
Sewing  machines,  369 
Shafter,  General,  524 
Shays'  Rebellion,  234 
Shenandoah  Valley,  113,  402,  417,   427- 

428 
Sheridan,  General,  428,  429 
Sherman,  J.  S.,  app.,  viii 
Sherman,  General  W.  T.,  425,  426,  428, 

429,  430 
Shiloh,  battle  of,  414 
Shoe  and  Leather  trade,  128 
Short  ballot,  504 
Siberia,  319-320 
Sioux,  456 
Sitting  Bull,  456 
Slater,  Samuel,  253,  254 
Slavery,  12,  43,  47,  119,  254-255,  315.  346, 

372-374,  376-388,  418-420,  438 
Smith,  Captain  John,  22,  41-42  (portrait), 

52,  53 
Smuggling,  131,  160-161,  172-173 
South,   122,  331, '371-374.   390,  435-443, 

464,  475-481 
South  America,  318-321 
South   Carolina,    colonial,   97,    115,    117, 

118,  122,  125,  144,  148,  167,  168,  173; 

in   Revolution,    207,    218-219;    Nulli- 


Ix 


INDEX 


fication  in,  332-333;  first  railroad  in, 
335;  slavery  in,  373;  in  the  Civil  War, 
391,  430;  after  the  War,  441 

South  Dakota,  460,  505 

Spain,  discoveries  and  exploration  of, 
3-12,  18,  21,  26,  88-8g,  116;  colonial 
policy  of,  146;  losses  in  Seven  Years' 
War,  159;  missions  in  California,  226- 
228,  354;  gives  up  Louisiana,  ^"^66- 
268;  loses  American  colonies,  318-321; 
war  with,  522-524 

Spice  Islands,  2,  77 

Spinning,  126,  250-252,  253,  299 

Spoils  System,  327,  500 

Springfield,  Mass.,  65,  206,  235 

"  Squatter  Sovereignty,"  377 

Stage-coaches,  228,  305-306 

Standish,  Miles,  51,  54 

Stark,  John,  181,  200 

Stamp  Act,  165-169 

States,  organization  of,  193-194 

Staunton,  Va.,  504 

Steamboats,  302-303,  366-367,  467-468 

Steam-engine,  251-252 

Steel,  128,  466-467,  469 

Stephens,  A.  H.,  379,  391 

Stephenson,  George,  334-335 

Steuben,  Baron,  215 

Stevens,  Thaddeus,  439-440 

Stevenson,  Adlai  E.,  app.,  viii 

Stowe,  Harriet  B.,  381 

Strikes,  339,  495-496 

Stuyvesant  (sti'  ve  sSnt),  Peter,  83-84 
(portrait) 

Suffrage,  65,  323,  506 

Sugar  Acts,  131-132,  145,  161,  165,  166 

Sumner,  Charles,  379,  439-440,  446 

Sumter,  Fort,  395-397 

Sumter,  Thomas,  218 

Supreme  Court,  239,  240 

Swedes,  settlement  by,  81 

Tacoma,  Wash.,  486 
Taft,  W.  H.,  502,  510,  530-531 
Taney,  Chief  Justice,  385 
Tariff,  early,  244-245;   of  181 6,  300-301; 
of  1828  and  1833,  331-333;   recent,  509 
Taxation,  131,  165,  244-245,  331-333,  421 
Taylor,  Zachary,  355-356,  378,  379,  380 
Tea,  tax  on,  1 71-173 


Technical  High  Schools,  515 

Tecumseh  (te-kum'  se),  282,  287 

Telegraph,  365-366,  435,  464,  465 

Telephone,  464 

Tenement  question,  493 

Tennessee,  settlement  of,  209;  admitted 
to  Union,  248;  as  a  state,  315,  323,  326; 
secedes,  392,  397;  in  the  Civil  War, 
398,  414-415,  425;  Reconstruction  of, 
437;  industry  in,  476 

Tennessee  River,  209,  403,  404,  414 

Territories  of  the  United  States,  North- 
west, 231-233;  Louisiana,  264-274; 
Florida,  318;  Oregon,  349-352,  356; 
Cahfornia,  356,  358-360;  New  Mexico, 
358;  Alaska,  447-448,  485 

Texas,  36,  226;  independence  of,  345-348, 
352;  annexation  of,  354;:;3^,  358;  in 
Civil  War,  423;  industfyin,  476-477 

Thanksgiving  Day,  55,  56,  61 

Thomas,  General  G.  H.,  425,  429 

Threshing  machines,  124,  368 

Ticonderoga,  185 

Tilden,  S.  J.,  443 

Tippecanoe,  battle  of,  282,  287 

Tobacco,  45-46,  124,  130,  132,  162,  206- 
207 

Toleration  Act,  74 

Tompkins,  D.  D.,  app.,  iii 

Topeka,  Kas.,  383 

Tories,  191-192 

Toronto,  289 

Town  meeting,  140 

Townshend  Acts,  169-170 

Trade,  see  Commerce,  Fur  Trade 

Trade  Unions,  339,  493-496 

Trafalgar,  battle  of,  277 

Treaties,  Utrecht  (17 13),  106;  Paris 
(1763),  159;  Paris  (1783),  221;  Jay's, 
258;  Ghent  (1814),  294;  with  Mexico, 
358 

Trent  affair,  407 

Trenton,  battle  of,  197 

Troy,  N.Y.,  473 

Trusts,  472-473 

Turnpikes,  304 

Tuskeegee  Institute,  481 

Tweed  Ring,  501 

Tyler,  John,  352 

Typewriter,  470 


INDEX 


Ixi 


Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  381 

Underground  Railroad,  38  o 

Union  Pacific  Railroad,  454-455 

United  Brethren,  116 

Universities,  342-343,  516-518 

Utah,  360,  378,  380,  460,  488,  505,  506 

Valley  Forge,  204 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  331,  340,  348,  377 

Van  Rensselaer,  79 

Vanderbilt,  "  Commodore,"  472 

Venezuela,  318 

Vermont,  248,  323 

Vespucius,  Americus,  7 

•Veto,  141,  239 

Vicksburg,  403,  423 

Victoria,  Queen,  407 

Vincennes,  211 

Virginia,  settlement  of,  14,  20-22,  39-47, 
87;  Bacon's  rebellion,  144;  colonial 
industry  in,  128,  129,  130;  education 
in,  133;  religion,  136,  265;  conflict 
with  French,  148,  150,  152-153,  154, 
156;  resists  Stamp  Act,  167;  during 
Revolution,  172,  203,  219-220;  land 
claims  of,  231;  ratifies  Constitution, 
242;  debts  of,  244;  Resolutions  of, 
260;  gives  land  for  capital,  264;  Uni- 
versity of,  265,  343;  slavery  in,  265, 
373;  secedes,  392,  397;  seat  of  War, 
402,  407-410,  416-418,  427-428,  430; 
after  War,  436,  478,  481 

Vote,  right  to,  65,  323,  506 

Wales,  immigrants  from,  92,  532 

Waltham,  Mass.,  298 

Wampum,  55 

Warren,  Joseph,  178 

Washington,  state  of,  274,  356,  460,  486- 
487,  506 

Washington,  D.C.,  244-245,  263-264,  293 

Washington,  Booker  T.,  481 

Washington,  George,  ancestors  of,  87;  in 
Ohio,  151-152;  in  French  and  Indian 
War,  155-156,  157;  resists  parliamen- 
tary measures,  169,  174;  commander- 
in-chief,  183,  184-185;  captures  Boston, 
186-187;  later  campaigns,  196-199, 
200-201,  204,  219-220;    between  1783 


and  1789,  222,  230,  234,  238;  Presi- 
dency, 242-248,  256-259;  interest  in 
a  National  Road,  305,  308;  portraits, 
185,  243 

Water  power,  479,  488-480 

Waterbury,  Ct.,  206,  473 

Watt,  James,  251-252 

Wayne,  Anthony,  248 

Weaving,  126-127,  250-252,  299 

Webster,  Daniel,  328,  332,  352,  378-379 

Welland  Canal,  349 

Wellington,  Duke  of,  286 

West  Indies,  77-78,  87,  131,  161,  206,  215, 
235,  257,  261,  266-267,  278,  526,  527, 
529 

West  Point,  216,  404 

West  Virginia,   398,  408,  470 

Western  Reserve,  231 

Whale  fishery,  132 

Wheeler,  W.  A.,  app.,  vii 

Wheeling,  W.Va>,  234,  305,  363 

Whig  party,  328,  378,  384-385 

Whiskey  Rebellion,  245 

White,  Father,  72 

Whitney,  Eli,  254 

Wilderness,  battle  of,  427 

Willard,  Emma,  343 

William  and  Mary,  king  and  queen  of 
England,  104-105;   college,  134 

Williams,  Roger,  63,  64,  74 

Will's  Creek,  150  * 

Wilson,  Henry,  app.,  vii 

Wilson,  James,  238,  240 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  510 

Winthrop,  John,  60  (portrait),  61 

Wisconsin,  370-37^,  381,  515-516,  518 

Witchcraft,  136-137 

Wolfe,  James,  158-159 

Woman  Suffrage,  506 

Woolen  Act,  127 

Writs  of  Assistance,  161-162 

Wyoming,  state,  460,  487,  488,  506 

Wyoming  Massacre,  210 

Yale  College,  134 
Yellow  fever,  526 
Yorktown,  capture  of,  220 

Zuni  (z6'  nye)  Indians,  10,  29,  30 


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